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Wave function

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Wave_equation" title="Wave equation">Wave equation</a>.</div>

In <a href="Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a>, a wave function (or wavefunction) is a mathematical description of the <a href="Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">quantum state</a> of an isolated <a href="Quantum_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum system">quantum system</a>. The most common symbols for a wave function are the Greek letters ψ and Ψ (lower-case and capital <a href="Psi_(letter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Psi (letter)">psi</a>, respectively). Wave functions are <a href="Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex-valued</a>. For example, a wave function might assign a complex number to each point in a region of space. The <a href="Born_rule" title="Born rule">Born rule</a><a href="#cite_note-Born_1926_A-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Born_1926_B-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> provides the means to turn these complex <a href="Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">probability amplitudes</a> into actual probabilities. In one common form, it says that the <a href="Squared_modulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Squared modulus">squared modulus</a> of a wave function that depends upon position is the <a href="Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">probability density</a> of <a href="Measurement_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Measurement in quantum mechanics">measuring</a> a particle as being at a given place. The integral of a wavefunction's squared modulus over all the system's degrees of freedom must be equal to 1, a condition called normalization. Since the wave function is complex-valued, only its relative phase and relative magnitude can be measured; its value does not, in isolation, tell anything about the magnitudes or directions of measurable observables. One has to apply <a href="Operator_(quantum_mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Operator (quantum mechanics)">quantum operators</a>, whose eigenvalues correspond to sets of possible results of measurements, to the wave function ψ and calculate the statistical distributions for measurable quantities.

Wave functions can be <a href="Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">functions</a> of variables other than position, such as <a href="Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a>. The information represented by a wave function that is dependent upon position can be converted into a wave function dependent upon momentum and vice versa, by means of a <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a>. Some particles, like <a href="Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, have nonzero <a href="Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>, and the wave function for such particles includes spin as an intrinsic, discrete degree of freedom; other discrete variables can also be included, such as <a href="Isospin" title="Isospin">isospin</a>. When a system has internal degrees of freedom, the wave function at each point in the continuous degrees of freedom (e.g., a point in space) assigns a complex number for each possible value of the discrete degrees of freedom (e.g., z-component of spin). These values are often displayed in a <a href="Column_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Column matrix">column matrix</a> (e.g., a 2 × 1 column vector for a non-relativistic electron with spin <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">

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</style>1⁄2).

According to the <a href="Superposition_principle" title="Superposition principle">superposition principle</a> of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>. The inner product of two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the <a href="Born_rule" title="Born rule">Born rule</a>, relating transition probabilities to inner products. The <a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> determines how wave functions evolve over time, and a wave function behaves qualitatively like other <a href="Wave" title="Wave">waves</a>, such as <a href="Water_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Water wave">water waves</a> or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of <a href="Wave_equation" title="Wave equation">wave equation</a>. This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to <a href="Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a>. However, whether the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon is still open to different <a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretations</a>, fundamentally differentiating it from <a href="Classic_mechanical" class="mw-redirect" title="Classic mechanical">classic mechanical</a> waves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn1927354–357-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeisenberg1958143-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch198743-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Broglie196048-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELandauLifshitz19776-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton200219–21-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist nowraplinks" style="width:;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1799e4a910c7d26396922a20ef5ceec25ca1871c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:16.882ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle }" loading="lazy"><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;"><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist nowrap" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">Introduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics" title="Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Background</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_quantum_theory" title="Old quantum theory">Old quantum theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">Bra–ket notation</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)">Hamiltonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Wave_interference" title="Wave interference">Interference</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Fundamentals</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Complementarity_(physics)" title="Complementarity (physics)">Complementarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_decoherence" title="Quantum decoherence">Decoherence</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">Entanglement</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a></li>

<li><a href="Measurement_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Measurement in quantum mechanics">Measurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_nonlocality" title="Quantum nonlocality">Nonlocality</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_number" title="Quantum number">Quantum number</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">State</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">Superposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Symmetry_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Symmetry in quantum mechanics">Symmetry</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">Tunnelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">Collapse</a></li></ul></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Experiments</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Bell_test" title="Bell test">Bell's inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="CHSH_inequality" title="CHSH inequality">CHSH inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Davisson%E2%80%93Germer_experiment" title="Davisson–Germer experiment">Davisson–Germer</a></li>

<li><a href="Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">Double-slit</a></li>

<li><a href="Elitzur%E2%80%93Vaidman_bomb_tester" title="Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester">Elitzur–Vaidman</a></li>

<li><a href="Franck%E2%80%93Hertz_experiment" title="Franck–Hertz experiment">Franck–Hertz</a></li>

<li><a href="Leggett_inequality" title="Leggett inequality">Leggett inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Leggett%E2%80%93Garg_inequality" title="Leggett–Garg inequality">Leggett–Garg inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Mach%E2%80%93Zehnder_interferometer" title="Mach–Zehnder interferometer">Mach–Zehnder</a></li>

<li><a href="Popper's_experiment" title="Popper's experiment">Popper</a></li></ul>

</div>

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_eraser_experiment" title="Quantum eraser experiment">Quantum eraser</a>

<ul><li><a href="Delayed-choice_quantum_eraser" title="Delayed-choice quantum eraser">Delayed-choice</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger's_cat" title="Schrödinger's cat">Schrödinger's cat</a></li>

<li><a href="Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment" title="Stern–Gerlach experiment">Stern–Gerlach</a></li>

<li><a href="Wheeler's_delayed-choice_experiment" title="Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment">Wheeler's delayed-choice</a></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Formulations</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li><a href="Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics">Overview</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Heisenberg_picture" title="Heisenberg picture">Heisenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Interaction_picture" title="Interaction picture">Interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">Matrix</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase-space_formulation" title="Phase-space formulation">Phase-space</a></li>

<li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_picture" title="Schrödinger picture">Schrödinger</a></li>

<li><a href="Path_integral_formulation" title="Path integral formulation">Sum-over-histories (path integral)</a></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Equations</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac</a></li>

<li><a href="Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation" title="Klein–Gordon equation">Klein–Gordon</a></li>

<li><a href="Pauli_equation" title="Pauli equation">Pauli</a></li>

<li><a href="Rydberg_formula" title="Rydberg formula">Rydberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger</a></li></ul>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_Bayesianism" title="Quantum Bayesianism">Bayesian</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness_causes_collapse" title="Consciousness causes collapse">Consciousness causes collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Consistent_histories" title="Consistent histories">Consistent histories</a></li>

<li><a href="Copenhagen_interpretation" title="Copenhagen interpretation">Copenhagen</a></li>

<li><a href="De_Broglie%E2%80%93Bohm_theory" title="De Broglie–Bohm theory">de Broglie–Bohm</a></li>

<li><a href="Ensemble_interpretation" title="Ensemble interpretation">Ensemble</a></li>

<li><a href="Hidden-variable_theory" title="Hidden-variable theory">Hidden-variable</a></li>

<li><a href="Many-worlds_interpretation" title="Many-worlds interpretation">Many-worlds</a></li>

<li><a href="Objective-collapse_theory" title="Objective-collapse theory">Objective-collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_logic" title="Quantum logic">Quantum logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Superdeterminism" title="Superdeterminism">Superdeterminism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_quantum_mechanics" title="Relational quantum mechanics">Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactional_interpretation" title="Transactional interpretation">Transactional</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Advanced topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li><a href="Relativistic_quantum_mechanics" title="Relativistic quantum mechanics">Relativistic quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_chaos" title="Quantum chaos">Quantum chaos</a></li>

<li><a href="Einstein%E2%80%93Podolsky%E2%80%93Rosen_paradox" title="Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox">EPR paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Density_matrix" title="Density matrix">Density matrix</a></li>

<li><a href="Scattering_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattering theory">Scattering theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_statistical_mechanics" title="Quantum statistical mechanics">Quantum statistical mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_machine_learning" title="Quantum machine learning">Quantum machine learning</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Scientists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Yakir_Aharonov" title="Yakir Aharonov">Aharonov</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></li>

<li><a href="Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a></li>

<li><a href="Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">de Broglie</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Debye</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ehrenfest" title="Paul Ehrenfest">Ehrenfest</a></li>

<li><a href="Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Hugh_Everett_III" title="Hugh Everett III">Everett</a></li>

<li><a href="Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></li>

<li><a href="Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_Gutzwiller" title="Martin Gutzwiller">Gutzwiller</a></li>

<li><a href="Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hilbert" title="David Hilbert">Hilbert</a></li>

<li><a href="Pascual_Jordan" title="Pascual Jordan">Jordan</a></li>

<li><a href="Hans_Kramers" title="Hans Kramers">Kramers</a></li>

<li><a href="Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Moseley</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></li>

<li><a href="Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Onnes</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></li>

<li><a href="C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></li>

<li><a href="Johannes_Rydberg" title="Johannes Rydberg">Rydberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a></li>

<li><a href="Michelle_Simmons" title="Michelle Simmons">Simmons</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Sommerfeld</a></li>

<li><a href="John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">von Neumann</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li>

<li><a href="Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></li>

<li><a href="Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></li></ul>

</div></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.1em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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In 1900, <a href="Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> postulated the proportionality between the frequency <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle f}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle f}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./132e57acb643253e7810ee9702d9581f159a1c61.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.279ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle f}" loading="lazy"> of a photon and its energy <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}" loading="lazy">, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E=hf}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E=hf}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./f39fac3593bb1e2dec0282c112c4dff7a99007f6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.492ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E=hf}" loading="lazy">,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

and in 1916 the corresponding relation between a photon's <a href="Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"> and <a href="Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }" loading="lazy">, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}}">

<mfrac>

</mfrac>

</mrow>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./3ba64e374ccd3f05ca8b646070a27e94a2b28921.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:6.629ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}}" loading="lazy">,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./b26be3e694314bc90c3215047e4a2010c6ee184a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h}" loading="lazy"> is the <a href="Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a>. In 1923, De Broglie was the first to suggest that the relation <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}}">

<mfrac>

</mfrac>

</mrow>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./3ba64e374ccd3f05ca8b646070a27e94a2b28921.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:6.629ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}}" loading="lazy">, now called the <a href="Matter_wave" title="Matter wave">De Broglie relation</a>, holds for massive particles, the chief clue being <a href="Lorentz_invariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz invariance">Lorentz invariance</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Broglie1923507–510,_548,_630-14">[14]</a> and this can be viewed as the starting point for the modern development of quantum mechanics. The equations represent <a href="Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</a> for both massless and massive particles.

In the 1920s and 1930s, quantum mechanics was developed using <a href="Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> and <a href="Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">linear algebra</a>. Those who used the techniques of calculus included <a href="Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a>, <a href="Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, and others, developing "<a href="Wave" title="Wave">wave mechanics</a>". Those who applied the methods of linear algebra included <a href="Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, <a href="Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>, and others, developing "<a href="Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">matrix mechanics</a>". Schrödinger subsequently showed that the two approaches were equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanle1977606–609-15">[15]</a>

In 1926, Schrödinger published the famous wave equation now named after him, the <a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>. This equation was based on <a href="Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical</a> <a href="Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a> using <a href="Operator_(physics)" title="Operator (physics)">quantum operators</a> and the de Broglie relations and the solutions of the equation are the wave functions for the quantum system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrödinger19261049–1070-16">[16]</a> However, no one was clear on how to interpret it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETiplerMoscaFreeman2008-17">[17]</a> At first, Schrödinger and others thought that wave functions represent particles that are spread out with most of the particle being where the wave function is large.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013-18">[18]</a> This was shown to be incompatible with the elastic scattering of a wave packet (representing a particle) off a target; it spreads out in all directions.<a href="#cite_note-Born_1926_A-1">[1]</a>

While a scattered particle may scatter in any direction, it does not break up and take off in all directions. In 1926, Born provided the perspective of <a href="Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">probability amplitude</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Born_1926_A-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Born_1926_B-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungFreedman20081333-19">[19]</a> This relates calculations of quantum mechanics directly to probabilistic experimental observations. It is accepted as part of the <a href="Copenhagen_interpretation" title="Copenhagen interpretation">Copenhagen interpretation</a> of quantum mechanics. There are many other <a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">interpretations of quantum mechanics</a>. In 1927, <a href="Douglas_Hartree" title="Douglas Hartree">Hartree</a> and <a href="Vladimir_Fock" title="Vladimir Fock">Fock</a> made the first step in an attempt to solve the <a href="Many-body_problem" title="Many-body problem">N-body</a> wave function, and developed the self-consistency cycle: an <a href="Iteration" title="Iteration">iterative</a> <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> to approximate the solution. Now it is also known as the <a href="Hartree%E2%80%93Fock_method" title="Hartree–Fock method">Hartree–Fock method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974-20">[20]</a> The <a href="Slater_determinant" title="Slater determinant">Slater determinant</a> and <a href="Permanent_(mathematics)" title="Permanent (mathematics)">permanent</a> (of a <a href="Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix</a>) was part of the method, provided by <a href="John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a>.

Schrödinger did encounter an equation for the wave function that satisfied <a href="Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativistic</a> energy conservation before he published the non-relativistic one, but discarded it as it predicted negative <a href="Probability" title="Probability">probabilities</a> and negative <a href="Energy" title="Energy">energies</a>. In 1927, <a href="Oskar_Klein" title="Oskar Klein">Klein</a>, <a href="Walter_Gordon_(physicist)" title="Walter Gordon (physicist)">Gordon</a> and Fock also found it, but incorporated the <a href="Electromagnetic_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic force">electromagnetic</a> <a href="Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">interaction</a> and proved that it was <a href="Lorentz_covariance" title="Lorentz covariance">Lorentz invariant</a>. De Broglie also arrived at the same equation in 1928. This relativistic wave equation is now most commonly known as the <a href="Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation" title="Klein–Gordon equation">Klein–Gordon equation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinShaw2008-21">[21]</a>

In 1927, <a href="Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a> phenomenologically found a non-relativistic equation to describe spin-1/2 particles in electromagnetic fields, now called the <a href="Pauli_equation" title="Pauli equation">Pauli equation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauli1927601–623.-22">[22]</a> Pauli found the wave function was not described by a single complex function of space and time, but needed two complex numbers, which respectively correspond to the spin +1/2 and −1/2 states of the fermion. Soon after in 1928, <a href="Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a> found an equation from the first successful unification of <a href="Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> and quantum mechanics applied to the <a href="Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>, now called the <a href="Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a>. In this, the wave function is a <a href="Dirac_spinor" title="Dirac spinor">spinor</a> represented by four complex-valued components:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974-20">[20]</a> two for the electron and two for the electron's <a href="Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">antiparticle</a>, the <a href="Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>. In the non-relativistic limit, the Dirac wave function resembles the Pauli wave function for the electron. Later, other <a href="Relativistic_wave_equations" title="Relativistic wave equations">relativistic wave equations</a> were found.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wave_functions_and_wave_equations_in_modern_theories">Wave functions and wave equations in modern theories</h3></div>

All these wave equations are of enduring importance. The Schrödinger equation and the Pauli equation are under many circumstances excellent approximations of the relativistic variants. They are considerably easier to solve in practical problems than the relativistic counterparts.

The <a href="Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation" title="Klein–Gordon equation">Klein–Gordon equation</a> and the <a href="Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a>, while being relativistic, do not represent full reconciliation of quantum mechanics and special relativity. The branch of quantum mechanics where these equations are studied the same way as the Schrödinger equation, often called <a href="Relativistic_quantum_mechanics" title="Relativistic quantum mechanics">relativistic quantum mechanics</a>, while very successful, has its limitations (see e.g. <a href="Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a>) and conceptual problems (see e.g. <a href="Dirac_sea" title="Dirac sea">Dirac sea</a>).

Relativity makes it inevitable that the number of particles in a system is not constant. For full reconciliation, <a href="Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a> is needed.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

In this theory, the wave equations and the wave functions have their place, but in a somewhat different guise. The main objects of interest are not the wave functions, but rather operators, so called field operators (or just fields where "operator" is understood) on the Hilbert space of states (to be described next section). It turns out that the original relativistic wave equations and their solutions are still needed to build the Hilbert space. Moreover, the free fields operators, i.e. when interactions are assumed not to exist, turn out to (formally) satisfy the same equation as do the fields (wave functions) in many cases.

Thus the Klein–Gordon equation (spin 0) and the Dirac equation (spin 1⁄2) in this guise remain in the theory. Higher spin analogues include the <a href="Proca_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Proca equation">Proca equation</a> (spin 1), <a href="Rarita%E2%80%93Schwinger_equation" title="Rarita–Schwinger equation">Rarita–Schwinger equation</a> (spin 3⁄2), and, more generally, the <a href="Bargmann%E2%80%93Wigner_equations" title="Bargmann–Wigner equations">Bargmann–Wigner equations</a>. For massless free fields two examples are the free field <a href="Maxwell_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell equation">Maxwell equation</a> (spin 1) and the free field <a href="Einstein_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein equation">Einstein equation</a> (spin 2) for the field operators.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

All of them are essentially a direct consequence of the requirement of <a href="Lorentz_invariance" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorentz invariance">Lorentz invariance</a>. Their solutions must transform under <a href="Lorentz_transformation" title="Lorentz transformation">Lorentz transformation</a> in a prescribed way, i.e. under a particular <a href="Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group#Common_representations" title="Representation theory of the Lorentz group">representation of the Lorentz group</a> and that together with few other reasonable demands, e.g. the <a href="Cluster_decomposition" title="Cluster decomposition">cluster decomposition property</a>,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

with implications for <a href="Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> is enough to fix the equations.

This applies to free field equations; interactions are not included. If a Lagrangian density (including interactions) is available, then the Lagrangian formalism will yield an equation of motion at the classical level. This equation may be very complex and not amenable to solution. Any solution would refer to a fixed number of particles and would not account for the term "interaction" as referred to in these theories, which involves the creation and annihilation of particles and not external potentials as in ordinary "first quantized" quantum theory.

In <a href="String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>, the situation remains analogous. For instance, a wave function in momentum space has the role of Fourier expansion coefficient in a general state of a particle (string) with momentum that is not sharply defined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZwiebach2009-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_(one_spinless_particle_in_one_dimension)">Definition (one spinless particle in one dimension)</h2></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:406px;max-width:406px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:404px;max-width:404px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">Standing waves</a> for a <a href="Particle_in_a_box" title="Particle in a box">particle in a box</a>, examples of <a href="Stationary_state" title="Stationary state">stationary states</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:404px;max-width:404px"><div class="thumbimage"></div><div class="thumbcaption">Travelling waves of a free particle.</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="Real_and_imaginary_parts" class="mw-redirect" title="Real and imaginary parts">real parts</a> of position wave function Ψ(x) and momentum wave function Φ(p), and corresponding probability densities |Ψ(x)|2 and |Φ(p)|2, for one spin-0 particle in one x or p dimension. The colour opacity of the particles corresponds to the probability density (not the wave function) of finding the particle at position x or momentum p.</div></div></div></div>

For now, consider the simple case of a non-relativistic single particle, without <a href="Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>, in one spatial dimension. More general cases are discussed below.

According to the <a href="Postulates_of_quantum_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Postulates of quantum mechanics">postulates of quantum mechanics</a>, the <a href="Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">state</a> of a physical system, at fixed time <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy">, is given by the wave function belonging to a <a href="Separable_space" title="Separable space">separable</a> <a href="Complex_number" title="Complex number">complex</a> <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEApplications_of_Quantum_Mechanics-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths200494-28">[28]</a> As such, the <a href="Inner_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner product">inner product</a> of two wave functions Ψ1 and Ψ2 can be defined as the complex number (at time t)<a href="#cite_note-29">[nb 1]</a>

<msub>

</mrow>

</msub>

<msub>

</mrow>

</msub>

</mrow>

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</msubsup>

</mrow>

</mrow>

</msubsup>

<msub>

</mrow>

</msub>

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</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\Psi _{1},\Psi _{2})=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\,\Psi _{1}^{*}(x,t)\Psi _{2}(x,t)\,dx<\infty }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./c614f8839625c54d07c2d6ac4a06c068f8157e99.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:40.992ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (\Psi _{1},\Psi _{2})=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\,\Psi _{1}^{*}(x,t)\Psi _{2}(x,t)\,dx<\infty }" loading="lazy">.</dd></dl>

More details are given <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Wave_functions_and_function_spaces">below</a>. However, the inner product of a wave function Ψ with itself,

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\Psi ,\Psi )=\|\Psi \|^{2}}</annotation>

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is always a positive real number. The number ‖Ψ‖ (not ‖Ψ‖2) is called the <a href="Norm_(mathematics)" title="Norm (mathematics)">norm</a> of the wave function Ψ.

The <a href="Hilbert_space#Separable_spaces" title="Hilbert space">separable Hilbert space</a> being considered is infinite-<a href="Dimension_(vector_space)" title="Dimension (vector space)">dimensional</a>,<a href="#cite_note-30">[nb 2]</a> which means there is no finite set of <a href="Square-integrable_function" title="Square-integrable function">square integrable functions</a> which can be added together in various combinations to create every possible <a href="Square-integrable_function" title="Square-integrable function">square integrable function</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Position-space_wave_functions">Position-space wave functions</h3></div>

The state of such a particle is completely described by its wave function, <math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi (x,t)\,,}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (x,t)\,,}</annotation>

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</math> where x is position and t is time. This is a <a href="Complex-valued_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex-valued function">complex-valued function</a> of two real variables x and t.

For one spinless particle in one dimension, if the wave function is interpreted as a <a href="Probability_amplitude" title="Probability amplitude">probability amplitude</a>; the square <a href="Absolute_value" title="Absolute value">modulus</a> of the wave function, the positive real number

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\Psi (x,t)\right|^{2}=\Psi ^{*}(x,t)\Psi (x,t)=\rho (x),}</annotation>

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is interpreted as the <a href="Probability_density_function" title="Probability density function">probability density</a> for a measurement of the particle's position at a given time t. The asterisk indicates the <a href="Complex_conjugate" title="Complex conjugate">complex conjugate</a>. If the particle's position is <a href="Measurement_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Measurement in quantum mechanics">measured</a>, its location cannot be determined from the wave function, but is described by a <a href="Probability_distribution" title="Probability distribution">probability distribution</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Normalization_condition">Normalization condition</h4></div>

The probability that its position x will be in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b is the integral of the density over this interval:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{a\leq x\leq b}(t)=\int _{a}^{b}\,|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}dx}</annotation>

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where t is the time at which the particle was measured. This leads to the normalization condition:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\,|\Psi (x,t)|^{2}dx=1\,,}</annotation>

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because if the particle is measured, there is 100% probability that it will be somewhere.

For a given system, the set of all possible normalizable wave functions (at any given time) forms an abstract mathematical <a href="Vector_space" title="Vector space">vector space</a>, meaning that it is possible to add together different wave functions, and multiply wave functions by complex numbers. Technically, wave functions form a <a href="Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics#Description_of_the_state_of_a_system" title="Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics">ray</a> in a <a href="Projective_Hilbert_space" title="Projective Hilbert space">projective Hilbert space</a> rather than an ordinary vector space.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quantum_states_as_vectors">Quantum states as vectors</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics">Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics</a>, <a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">Bra–ket notation</a>, and <a href="Position_operator" title="Position operator">Position operator</a></div>

At a particular instant of time, all values of the wave function Ψ(x, t) are components of a vector. There are uncountably infinitely many of them and integration is used in place of summation. In <a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">Bra–ket notation</a>, this vector is written

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi (t)\rangle =\int \Psi (x,t)|x\rangle dx}</annotation>

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and is referred to as a "quantum state vector", or simply "quantum state". There are several advantages to understanding wave functions as representing elements of an abstract vector space:

<ul><li>All the powerful tools of <a href="Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">linear algebra</a> can be used to manipulate and understand wave functions. For example:

<ul><li>Linear algebra explains how a vector space can be given a <a href="Basis_(linear_algebra)" title="Basis (linear algebra)">basis</a>, and then any vector in the vector space can be expressed in this basis. This explains the relationship between a wave function in position space and a wave function in momentum space and suggests that there are other possibilities too.</li>

<li><a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">Bra–ket notation</a> can be used to manipulate wave functions.</li></ul></li>

<li>The idea that <a href="Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">quantum states</a> are vectors in an abstract vector space is completely general in all aspects of quantum mechanics and <a href="Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a>, whereas the idea that quantum states are complex-valued "wave" functions of space is only true in certain situations.</li></ul>

The time parameter is often suppressed, and will be in the following. The x coordinate is a continuous index. The |x⟩ are called improper vectors which, unlike proper vectors that are normalizable to unity, can only be normalized to a Dirac delta function.<a href="#cite_note-31">[nb 3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-32">[nb 4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShankar1994117-33">[29]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \langle x'|x\rangle =\delta (x'-x)}</annotation>

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thus

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \langle x'|\Psi \rangle =\int \Psi (x)\langle x'|x\rangle dx=\Psi (x')}</annotation>

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and

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle =\int |x\rangle \langle x|\Psi \rangle dx=\left(\int |x\rangle \langle x|dx\right)|\Psi \rangle }</annotation>

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which illuminates the <a href="Identity_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Identity operator">identity operator</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I=\int |x\rangle \langle x|dx\,.}</annotation>

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</math>which is analogous to completeness relation of orthonormal basis in N-dimensional Hilbert space.

Finding the identity operator in a basis allows the abstract state to be expressed explicitly in a basis, and more (the inner product between two state vectors, and other operators for observables, can be expressed in the basis).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Momentum-space_wave_functions">Momentum-space wave functions</h3></div>

The particle also has a wave function in <a href="Momentum_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Momentum space">momentum space</a>:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi (p,t)}</annotation>

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where p is the <a href="Momentum#Quantum_mechanical" title="Momentum">momentum</a> in one dimension, which can be any value from −∞ to +∞, and t is time.

Analogous to the position case, the inner product of two wave functions Φ1(p, t) and Φ2(p, t) can be defined as:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\Phi _{1},\Phi _{2})=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\,\Phi _{1}^{*}(p,t)\Phi _{2}(p,t)dp\,.}</annotation>

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One particular solution to the time-independent Schrödinger equation is

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi _{p}(x)=e^{ipx/\hbar },}</annotation>

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a <a href="Plane_wave" title="Plane wave">plane wave</a>, which can be used in the description of a particle with momentum exactly p, since it is an eigenfunction of the <a href="Momentum_operator" title="Momentum operator">momentum operator</a>. These functions are not normalizable to unity (they are not square-integrable), so they are not really elements of physical Hilbert space. The set

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{\Psi _{p}(x,t),-\infty \leq p\leq \infty \}}</annotation>

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forms what is called the momentum basis. This "basis" is not a basis in the usual mathematical sense. For one thing, since the functions are not normalizable, they are instead normalized to a delta function,<a href="#cite_note-:0-32">[nb 4]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\Psi _{p},\Psi _{p'})=\delta (p-p').}</annotation>

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For another thing, though they are linearly independent, there are too many of them (they form an uncountable set) for a basis for physical Hilbert space. They can still be used to express all functions in it using Fourier transforms as described next.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_between_position_and_momentum_representations">Relations between position and momentum representations</h3></div>

The x and p representations are

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}|\Psi \rangle =I|\Psi \rangle &=\int |x\rangle \langle x|\Psi \rangle dx=\int \Psi (x)|x\rangle dx,\\|\Psi \rangle =I|\Psi \rangle &=\int |p\rangle \langle p|\Psi \rangle dp=\int \Phi (p)|p\rangle dp.\end{aligned}}}</annotation>

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Now take the projection of the state Ψ onto eigenfunctions of momentum using the last expression in the two equations,

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int \Psi (x)\langle p|x\rangle dx=\int \Phi (p')\langle p|p'\rangle dp'=\int \Phi (p')\delta (p-p')dp'=\Phi (p).}</annotation>

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Then utilizing the known expression for suitably normalized eigenstates of momentum in the position representation solutions of the <a href="Free_particle#Mathematical_description" title="Free particle">free Schrödinger equation</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \langle x|p\rangle =p(x)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi \hbar }}}e^{{\frac {i}{\hbar }}px}\Rightarrow \langle p|x\rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi \hbar }}}e^{-{\frac {i}{\hbar }}px},}</annotation>

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one obtains

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi (p)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi \hbar }}}\int \Psi (x)e^{-{\frac {i}{\hbar }}px}dx\,.}</annotation>

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Likewise, using eigenfunctions of position,

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (x)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi \hbar }}}\int \Phi (p)e^{{\frac {i}{\hbar }}px}dp\,.}</annotation>

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The position-space and momentum-space wave functions are thus found to be <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transforms</a> of each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2004-34">[30]</a> They are two representations of the same state; containing the same information, and either one is sufficient to calculate any property of the particle.

In practice, the position-space wave function is used much more often than the momentum-space wave function. The potential entering the relevant equation (Schrödinger, Dirac, etc.) determines in which basis the description is easiest. For the <a href="Harmonic_oscillator" title="Harmonic oscillator">harmonic oscillator</a>, x and p enter symmetrically, so there it does not matter which description one uses. The same equation (modulo constants) results. From this, with a little bit of afterthought, it follows that solutions to the wave equation of the harmonic oscillator are eigenfunctions of the Fourier transform in L2.<a href="#cite_note-35">[nb 5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_(other_cases)">Definitions (other cases)</h2></div>

Following are the general forms of the wave function for systems in higher dimensions and more particles, as well as including other degrees of freedom than position coordinates or momentum components.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finite_dimensional_Hilbert_space">Finite dimensional Hilbert space</h3></div>

While <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert spaces</a> originally refer to infinite dimensional <a href="Complete_metric_space" title="Complete metric space">complete</a> <a href="Inner_product_space" title="Inner product space">inner product spaces</a> they, by definition, include finite dimensional <a href="Complete_metric_space" title="Complete metric space">complete</a> <a href="Inner_product_space" title="Inner product space">inner product spaces</a> as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreves2006112-125-36">[31]</a>

In physics, they are often referred to as finite dimensional Hilbert spaces.<a href="#cite_note-:0-37">[32]</a> For every finite dimensional Hilbert space there exist <a href="Orthonormal_basis" title="Orthonormal basis">orthonormal basis</a> kets that <a href="Span_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Span (mathematics)">span</a> the entire Hilbert space.

If the N-dimensional set <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1a68451854ac3f55d2f4ced94b326a901fa12ba1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.062ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}" loading="lazy"> is orthonormal, then the projection operator for the space spanned by these states is given by:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P=\sum _{i}|\phi _{i}\rangle \langle \phi _{i}|=I}</annotation>

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</math>where the projection is equivalent to identity operator since <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1a68451854ac3f55d2f4ced94b326a901fa12ba1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.062ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}" loading="lazy"> spans the entire Hilbert space, thus leaving any vector from Hilbert space unchanged. This is also known as completeness relation of finite dimensional Hilbert space.

The wavefunction is instead given by:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =I|\psi \rangle =\sum _{i}|\phi _{i}\rangle \langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle }</annotation>

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</math>where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./77242e4877e3262e777aa7e7fd0264288a2f97d4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.479ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle \}}" loading="lazy">, is a set of complex numbers which can be used to construct a wavefunction using the above formula.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Probability_interpretation_of_inner_product">Probability interpretation of inner product</h4></div>

If the set <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1a68451854ac3f55d2f4ced94b326a901fa12ba1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.062ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}" loading="lazy"> are eigenkets of a non-<a href="Degenerate_energy_levels" title="Degenerate energy levels">degenerate</a> <a href="Observable" title="Observable">observable</a> with eigenvalues <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \lambda _{i}}">

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</math><img src="./2e7595a3324abd3ad66d491f32d4cb299dae4114.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.155ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle \lambda _{i}}" loading="lazy">, by the <a href="Postulates_of_quantum_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Postulates of quantum mechanics">postulates of quantum mechanics</a>, the probability of measuring the observable to be <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \lambda _{i}}">

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</math><img src="./2e7595a3324abd3ad66d491f32d4cb299dae4114.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.155ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle \lambda _{i}}" loading="lazy"> is given according to <a href="Born_rule" title="Born rule">Born rule</a> as:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELandsman2009-38">[33]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\psi }(\lambda _{i})=|\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle |^{2}}</annotation>

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For non-degenerate <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./74747e5d0cb81da77fe38e05b6b634b9e3fd73db.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.421ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \}}" loading="lazy">, by the <a href="Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics">postulates of quantum mechanics</a>, the probability of measuring the observable to be <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \lambda }">

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</math><img src="./f801b46dadd4b4d0ba4c6592b232053bd79e080b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle \lambda }" loading="lazy"> is given by:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\psi }(\lambda )=\sum _{j}|\langle \lambda ^{(j)}|\psi \rangle |^{2}=|{\widehat {P}}_{\lambda }|\psi \rangle |^{2}}</annotation>

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</math>where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\widehat {P}}_{\lambda }=\sum _{j}|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \langle \lambda ^{(j)}|}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\widehat {P}}_{\lambda }=\sum _{j}|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \langle \lambda ^{(j)}|}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./0d6274212a2d0a3775aca457364461017f0d0c52.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:20.108ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\widehat {P}}_{\lambda }=\sum _{j}|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \langle \lambda ^{(j)}|}" loading="lazy"> is a projection operator of states to subspace spanned by <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./74747e5d0cb81da77fe38e05b6b634b9e3fd73db.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.421ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{|\lambda ^{(j)}\rangle \}}" loading="lazy">. The equality follows due to orthogonal nature of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1a68451854ac3f55d2f4ced94b326a901fa12ba1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.062ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{|\phi _{i}\rangle \}}" loading="lazy">.

Hence, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle \}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle \}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./77242e4877e3262e777aa7e7fd0264288a2f97d4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.479ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{\langle \phi _{i}|\psi \rangle \}}" loading="lazy"> which specify state of the quantum mechanical system, have magnitudes whose square gives the probability of measuring the respective <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle |\phi _{i}\rangle }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle |\phi _{i}\rangle }</annotation>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physical_significance_of_relative_phase">Physical significance of relative phase</h4></div>

While the relative phase has observable effects in experiments, the global phase of the system is experimentally indistinguishable. For example in a particle in superposition of two states, the global phase of the particle cannot be distinguished by finding expectation value of observable or probabilities of observing different states but relative phases can affect the expectation values of observables.

While the overall phase of the system is considered to be arbitrary, the relative phase for each state <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle |\phi _{i}\rangle }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle |\phi _{i}\rangle }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./2ca5eb192abe479ff25f2595fca94bd356f3318d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.737ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle |\phi _{i}\rangle }" loading="lazy"> of a prepared state in superposition can be determined based on physical meaning of the prepared state and its symmetry. For example, the construction of spin states along x direction as a superposition of spin states along z direction, can done by applying appropriate rotation transformation on the spin along z states which provides appropriate phase of the states relative to each other.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Application_to_include_spin">Application to include spin</h4></div>

An example of finite dimensional Hilbert space can be constructed using spin eigenkets of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle s}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle s}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./45013da7f502d373d039cb1056a9c4d1ea06ffc7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\textstyle s}" loading="lazy">-spin particles which forms a <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 2s+1}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 2s+1}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fecf098bd7284889637410157b32dd3b3ad40e08.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.256ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\textstyle 2s+1}" loading="lazy"> dimensional <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>. However, the general wavefunction of a particle that fully describes its state, is always from an infinite dimensional <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a> since it involves a tensor product with <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a> relating to the position or momentum of the particle. Nonetheless, the techniques developed for finite dimensional Hilbert space are useful since they can either be treated independently or treated in consideration of linearity of tensor product.

Since the <a href="Spin_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin operator">spin operator</a> for a given <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle s}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle s}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./45013da7f502d373d039cb1056a9c4d1ea06ffc7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\textstyle s}" loading="lazy">-spin particles can be represented as a finite <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle (2s+1)^{2}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle (2s+1)^{2}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./59823ceb45b3d51d5091c10f67bd69443e33216c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.119ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\textstyle (2s+1)^{2}}" loading="lazy"> <a href="Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrix</a> which acts on <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle 2s+1}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle 2s+1}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fecf098bd7284889637410157b32dd3b3ad40e08.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:6.256ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\textstyle 2s+1}" loading="lazy"> independent spin vector components, it is usually preferable to denote spin components using matrix/column/row notation as applicable.

For example, each |sz⟩ is usually identified as a column vector:<math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |s\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\\\vdots \\0\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}\,,\quad |s-1\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\1\\\vdots \\0\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}\,,\ldots \,,\quad |-(s-1)\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\1\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}\,,\quad |-s\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\0\\1\\\end{bmatrix}}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |s\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\\\vdots \\0\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}\,,\quad |s-1\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\1\\\vdots \\0\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}\,,\ldots \,,\quad |-(s-1)\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\1\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}\,,\quad |-s\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\0\\1\\\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>

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but it is a common abuse of notation, because the kets |sz⟩ are not synonymous or equal to the column vectors. Column vectors simply provide a convenient way to express the spin components.

Corresponding to the notation, the z-component spin operator can be written as:<math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\hbar }}{\hat {S}}_{z}={\begin{bmatrix}s&0&\cdots &0&0\\0&s-1&\cdots &0&0\\\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots &\vdots \\0&0&\cdots &-(s-1)&0\\0&0&\cdots &0&-s\end{bmatrix}}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\hbar }}{\hat {S}}_{z}={\begin{bmatrix}s&0&\cdots &0&0\\0&s-1&\cdots &0&0\\\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots &\vdots \\0&0&\cdots &-(s-1)&0\\0&0&\cdots &0&-s\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>

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since the <a href="Eigenvector" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenvector">eigenvectors</a> of z-component spin operator are the above column vectors, with eigenvalues being the corresponding spin quantum numbers.

Corresponding to the notation, a vector from such a finite dimensional Hilbert space is hence represented as:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\phi \rangle ={\begin{bmatrix}\langle s|\phi \rangle \\\langle s-1|\phi \rangle \\\vdots \\\langle -(s-1)|\phi \rangle \\\langle -s|\phi \rangle \\\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}\varepsilon _{s}\\\varepsilon _{s-1}\\\vdots \\\varepsilon _{-s+1}\\\varepsilon _{-s}\\\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>

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</math>where <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \{\varepsilon _{i}\}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \{\varepsilon _{i}\}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./fc7e46f86eb93d52fb31d4e334372a4dc31cf25c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.208ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle \{\varepsilon _{i}\}}" loading="lazy"> are corresponding complex numbers.

In the following discussion involving spin, the complete wavefunction is considered as tensor product of spin states from finite dimensional Hilbert spaces and the wavefunction which was previously developed. The basis for this Hilbert space are hence considered: <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} ,s_{z}\rangle =|\mathbf {r} \rangle |s_{z}\rangle }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} ,s_{z}\rangle =|\mathbf {r} \rangle |s_{z}\rangle }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./a2d61b978fd130144b4e2e0d5791a9450011dba6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.175ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} ,s_{z}\rangle =|\mathbf {r} \rangle |s_{z}\rangle }" loading="lazy">.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="One-particle_states_in_3d_position_space">One-particle states in 3d position space</h3></div>

The position-space wave function of a single particle without spin in three spatial dimensions is similar to the case of one spatial dimension above: <math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)}</annotation>

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</math> where r is the <a href="Position_vector" class="mw-redirect" title="Position vector">position vector</a> in three-dimensional space, and t is time. As always Ψ(r, t) is a complex-valued function of real variables. As a single vector in <a href="Dirac_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirac notation">Dirac notation</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi (t)\rangle =\int d^{3}\!\mathbf {r} \,\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)\,|\mathbf {r} \rangle }</annotation>

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All the previous remarks on inner products, momentum space wave functions, Fourier transforms, and so on extend to higher dimensions.

For a particle with <a href="Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a>, ignoring the position degrees of freedom, the wave function is a function of spin only (time is a parameter);

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \xi (s_{z},t)}</annotation>

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where sz is the <a href="Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin projection quantum number</a> along the z axis. (The z axis is an arbitrary choice; other axes can be used instead if the wave function is transformed appropriately, see below.) The sz parameter, unlike r and t, is a <a href="Continuous_or_discrete_variable#Discrete_variable" title="Continuous or discrete variable">discrete variable</a>. For example, for a <a href="Spin-1/2" title="Spin-1/2">spin-1/2</a> particle, sz can only be +1/2 or −1/2, and not any other value. (In general, for spin s, sz can be s, s − 1, ..., −s + 1, −s). Inserting each quantum number gives a complex valued function of space and time, there are 2s + 1 of them. These can be arranged into a <a href="Column_vector" class="mw-redirect" title="Column vector">column vector</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \xi ={\begin{bmatrix}\xi (s,t)\\\xi (s-1,t)\\\vdots \\\xi (-(s-1),t)\\\xi (-s,t)\\\end{bmatrix}}=\xi (s,t){\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\\\vdots \\0\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}+\xi (s-1,t){\begin{bmatrix}0\\1\\\vdots \\0\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}+\cdots +\xi (-(s-1),t){\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\1\\0\\\end{bmatrix}}+\xi (-s,t){\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\0\\1\\\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>

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In <a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">bra–ket notation</a>, these easily arrange into the components of a vector:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\xi (t)\rangle =\sum _{s_{z}=-s}^{s}\xi (s_{z},t)\,|s_{z}\rangle }</annotation>

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The entire vector ξ is a solution of the Schrödinger equation (with a suitable Hamiltonian), which unfolds to a coupled system of 2s + 1 ordinary differential equations with solutions ξ(s, t), ξ(s − 1, t), ..., ξ(−s, t). The term "spin function" instead of "wave function" is used by some authors. This contrasts the solutions to position space wave functions, the position coordinates being continuous degrees of freedom, because then the Schrödinger equation does take the form of a wave equation.

More generally, for a particle in 3d with any spin, the wave function can be written in "position–spin space" as:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} ,s_{z},t)}</annotation>

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and these can also be arranged into a column vector

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)={\begin{bmatrix}\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,s,t)\\\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,s-1,t)\\\vdots \\\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,-(s-1),t)\\\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,-s,t)\\\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>

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in which the spin dependence is placed in indexing the entries, and the wave function is a complex <a href="Vector-valued_function" title="Vector-valued function">vector-valued function</a> of space and time only.

All values of the wave function, not only for discrete but <a href="Continuous_or_discrete_variable#Continuous_variable" title="Continuous or discrete variable">continuous variables</a> also, collect into a single vector

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi (t)\rangle =\sum _{s_{z}}\int d^{3}\!\mathbf {r} \,\Psi (\mathbf {r} ,s_{z},t)\,|\mathbf {r} ,s_{z}\rangle }</annotation>

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For a single particle, the <a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation#Composite_bras_and_kets" title="Bra–ket notation">tensor product</a> ⊗ of its position state vector |ψ⟩ and spin state vector |ξ⟩ gives the composite position-spin state vector

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\psi (t)\rangle \!\otimes \!|\xi (t)\rangle =\sum _{s_{z}}\int d^{3}\!\mathbf {r} \,\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)\,\xi (s_{z},t)\,|\mathbf {r} \rangle \!\otimes \!|s_{z}\rangle }</annotation>

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with the identifications

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} ,s_{z},t)=\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)\,\xi (s_{z},t)}</annotation>

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The tensor product factorization of energy eigenstates is always possible if the orbital and spin angular momenta of the particle are separable in the <a href="Hamiltonian_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamiltonian operator">Hamiltonian operator</a> underlying the system's dynamics (in other words, the Hamiltonian can be split into the sum of orbital and spin terms<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShankar1994378–379-39">[34]</a>). The time dependence can be placed in either factor, and time evolution of each can be studied separately. Under such Hamiltonians, any tensor product state evolves into another tensor product state, which essentially means any unentangled state remains unentangled under time evolution. This is said to happen when there is no physical interaction between the states of the tensor products. In the case of non separable Hamiltonians, energy eigenstates are said to be some linear combination of such states, which need not be factorizable; examples include a particle in a <a href="Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a>, and <a href="Spin%E2%80%93orbit_coupling" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin–orbit coupling">spin–orbit coupling</a>.

The preceding discussion is not limited to spin as a discrete variable, the total <a href="Angular_momentum_operator" title="Angular momentum operator">angular momentum</a> J may also be used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELandauLifshitz1977-40">[35]</a> Other discrete degrees of freedom, like <a href="Isospin" title="Isospin">isospin</a>, can expressed similarly to the case of spin above.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Many-particle_states_in_3d_position_space">Many-particle states in 3d position space</h3></div>

If there are many particles, in general there is only one wave function, not a separate wave function for each particle. The fact that one wave function describes many particles is what makes <a href="Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">quantum entanglement</a> and the <a href="EPR_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="EPR paradox">EPR paradox</a> possible. The position-space wave function for N particles is written:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974-20">[20]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} _{1},\mathbf {r} _{2}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},t)}</annotation>

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where ri is the position of the i-th particle in three-dimensional space, and t is time. Altogether, this is a complex-valued function of 3N + 1 real variables.

In quantum mechanics there is a fundamental distinction between <a href="Identical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Identical particles">identical particles</a> and distinguishable particles. For example, any two electrons are identical and fundamentally indistinguishable from each other; the laws of physics make it impossible to "stamp an identification number" on a certain electron to keep track of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2004-34">[30]</a> This translates to a requirement on the wave function for a system of identical particles:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi \left(\ldots \mathbf {r} _{a},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{b},\ldots \right)=\pm \Psi \left(\ldots \mathbf {r} _{b},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{a},\ldots \right)}</annotation>

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where the + sign occurs if the particles are all bosons and − sign if they are all fermions. In other words, the wave function is either totally symmetric in the positions of bosons, or totally antisymmetric in the positions of fermions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZettili2009463-41">[36]</a> The physical interchange of particles corresponds to mathematically switching arguments in the wave function. The antisymmetry feature of fermionic wave functions leads to the <a href="Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli principle</a>. Generally, bosonic and fermionic symmetry requirements are the manifestation of <a href="Particle_statistics" title="Particle statistics">particle statistics</a> and are present in other quantum state formalisms.

For N distinguishable particles (no two being <a href="Identical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Identical particles">identical</a>, i.e. no two having the same set of quantum numbers), there is no requirement for the wave function to be either symmetric or antisymmetric.

For a collection of particles, some identical with coordinates r1, r2, ... and others distinguishable x1, x2, ... (not identical with each other, and not identical to the aforementioned identical particles), the wave function is symmetric or antisymmetric in the identical particle coordinates ri only:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi \left(\ldots \mathbf {r} _{a},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{b},\ldots ,\mathbf {x} _{1},\mathbf {x} _{2},\ldots \right)=\pm \Psi \left(\ldots \mathbf {r} _{b},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{a},\ldots ,\mathbf {x} _{1},\mathbf {x} _{2},\ldots \right)}</annotation>

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Again, there is no symmetry requirement for the distinguishable particle coordinates xi.

The wave function for N particles each with spin is the complex-valued function

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} _{1},\mathbf {r} _{2}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1},s_{z\,2}\cdots s_{z\,N},t)}</annotation>

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Accumulating all these components into a single vector,

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<mtext>discrete labels</mtext>

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<mtext>continuous labels</mtext>

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<mtext>wave function (component of </mtext>

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<mtext> state vector along basis state)</mtext>

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<mtext>basis state (basis ket)</mtext>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle =\overbrace {\sum _{s_{z\,1},\ldots ,s_{z\,N}}} ^{\text{discrete labels}}\overbrace {\int _{R_{N}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{N}\cdots \int _{R_{1}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{1}} ^{\text{continuous labels}}\;\underbrace {{\Psi }(\mathbf {r} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1},\ldots ,s_{z\,N})} _{\begin{array}{c}{\text{wave function (component of }}\\{\text{ state vector along basis state)}}\end{array}}\;\underbrace {|\mathbf {r} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1},\ldots ,s_{z\,N}\rangle } _{\text{basis state (basis ket)}}\,.}</annotation>

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For identical particles, symmetry requirements apply to both position and spin arguments of the wave function so it has the overall correct symmetry.

The formulae for the inner products are integrals over all coordinates or momenta and sums over all spin quantum numbers. For the general case of N particles with spin in 3-d,

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (\Psi _{1},\Psi _{2})=\sum _{s_{z\,N}}\cdots \sum _{s_{z\,2}}\sum _{s_{z\,1}}\int \limits _{\mathrm {all\,space} }d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{1}\int \limits _{\mathrm {all\,space} }d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{2}\cdots \int \limits _{\mathrm {all\,space} }d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{N}\Psi _{1}^{*}\left(\mathbf {r} _{1}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1}\cdots s_{z\,N},t\right)\Psi _{2}\left(\mathbf {r} _{1}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1}\cdots s_{z\,N},t\right)}</annotation>

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this is altogether N three-dimensional <a href="Volume_integral" title="Volume integral">volume integrals</a> and N sums over the spins. The differential volume elements d3ri are also written "dVi" or "dxi dyi dzi".

The multidimensional Fourier transforms of the position or position–spin space wave functions yields momentum or momentum–spin space wave functions.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Probability_interpretation">Probability interpretation</h4></div>

For the general case of N particles with spin in 3d, if Ψ is interpreted as a probability amplitude, the probability density is

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho \left(\mathbf {r} _{1}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1}\cdots s_{z\,N},t\right)=\left|\Psi \left(\mathbf {r} _{1}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},s_{z\,1}\cdots s_{z\,N},t\right)\right|^{2}}</annotation>

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and the probability that particle 1 is in region R1 with spin sz1 = m1 and particle 2 is in region R2 with spin sz2 = m2 etc. at time t is the integral of the probability density over these regions and evaluated at these spin numbers:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P_{\mathbf {r} _{1}\in R_{1},s_{z\,1}=m_{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N}\in R_{N},s_{z\,N}=m_{N}}(t)=\int _{R_{1}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{1}\int _{R_{2}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{2}\cdots \int _{R_{N}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{N}\left|\Psi \left(\mathbf {r} _{1}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},m_{1}\cdots m_{N},t\right)\right|^{2}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./a18bb7b4d4862239663513ff2c4875d41399a2fc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:93.531ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle P_{\mathbf {r} _{1}\in R_{1},s_{z\,1}=m_{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N}\in R_{N},s_{z\,N}=m_{N}}(t)=\int _{R_{1}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{1}\int _{R_{2}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{2}\cdots \int _{R_{N}}d^{3}\mathbf {r} _{N}\left|\Psi \left(\mathbf {r} _{1}\cdots \mathbf {r} _{N},m_{1}\cdots m_{N},t\right)\right|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Physical_significance_of_phase">Physical significance of phase</h4></div>

In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, it can be shown using Schrodinger's time dependent wave equation that the equation:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \rho (\mathbf {x} ,t)=|\psi (\mathbf {x} ,t)|^{2}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./a21fc5119dfb7c256b79eab6361bfd735bcf15ac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.349ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\textstyle \rho (\mathbf {x} ,t)=|\psi (\mathbf {x} ,t)|^{2}}" loading="lazy"> is the probability density and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \mathbf {J} (\mathbf {x} ,t)={\frac {\hbar }{2im}}(\psi ^{*}\nabla \psi -\psi \nabla \psi ^{*})={\frac {\hbar }{m}}{\text{Im}}(\psi ^{*}\nabla \psi )}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \mathbf {J} (\mathbf {x} ,t)={\frac {\hbar }{2im}}(\psi ^{*}\nabla \psi -\psi \nabla \psi ^{*})={\frac {\hbar }{m}}{\text{Im}}(\psi ^{*}\nabla \psi )}</annotation>

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Using the following expression for wavefunction:<math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi (\mathbf {x} ,t)={\sqrt {\rho (\mathbf {x} ,t)}}\exp {\frac {iS(\mathbf {x} ,t)}{\hbar }}}">

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</math><img src="./b090cfefc0658916fa3e69246f3d85e13c05dfee.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.593ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle S(\mathbf {x} ,t)}" loading="lazy"> is the phase of the wavefunction, it can be shown that:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {J} (\mathbf {x} ,t)={\frac {\rho \nabla S}{m}}}</annotation>

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Hence the spacial variation of phase characterizes the <a href="Probability_current" title="Probability current">probability flux</a>.

In classical analogy, for <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \mathbf {J} =\rho \mathbf {v} }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \mathbf {J} =\rho \mathbf {v} }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./58d73d69c09f78ca9ef1badffb1a972552d7b9d7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.092ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\textstyle \mathbf {J} =\rho \mathbf {v} }" loading="lazy">, the quantity <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\frac {\nabla S}{m}}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\frac {\nabla S}{m}}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./73698b945238cd43d61a64a235681fea76d79d1e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.265ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\frac {\nabla S}{m}}}" loading="lazy"> is analogous with velocity. Note that this does not imply a literal interpretation of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\frac {\nabla S}{m}}}">

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</math><img src="./73698b945238cd43d61a64a235681fea76d79d1e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:3.265ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\frac {\nabla S}{m}}}" loading="lazy"> as velocity since velocity and position cannot be simultaneously determined as per the <a href="Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a>. Substituting the form of wavefunction in Schrodinger's time dependent wave equation, and taking the classical limit, <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \hbar |\nabla ^{2}S|\ll |\nabla S|^{2}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \hbar |\nabla ^{2}S|\ll |\nabla S|^{2}}</annotation>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2m}}|\nabla S(\mathbf {x} ,t)|^{2}+V(\mathbf {x} )+{\frac {\partial S}{\partial t}}=0}</annotation>

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Which is analogous to <a href="Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi_equation" title="Hamilton–Jacobi equation">Hamilton-Jacobi equation</a> from classical mechanics. This interpretation fits with <a href="Hamilton%E2%80%93Jacobi_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamilton–Jacobi theory">Hamilton–Jacobi theory</a>, in which <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle \mathbf {P} _{\text{class.}}=\nabla S}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle \mathbf {P} _{\text{class.}}=\nabla S}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./de786060bb3102c103884a5d7f495bc6a7758007.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.355ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\textstyle \mathbf {P} _{\text{class.}}=\nabla S}" loading="lazy">, where S is <a href="Hamilton's_principal_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamilton's principal function">Hamilton's principal function</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Time_dependence">Time dependence</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Dynamical_pictures" title="Dynamical pictures">Dynamical pictures</a></div>

For systems in time-independent potentials, the wave function can always be written as a function of the degrees of freedom multiplied by a time-dependent phase factor, the form of which is given by the Schrödinger equation. For N particles, considering their positions only and suppressing other degrees of freedom,

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (\mathbf {r} _{1},\mathbf {r} _{2},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N},t)=e^{-iEt/\hbar }\,\psi (\mathbf {r} _{1},\mathbf {r} _{2},\ldots ,\mathbf {r} _{N})\,,}</annotation>

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where E is the energy eigenvalue of the system corresponding to the eigenstate Ψ. Wave functions of this form are called <a href="Stationary_state" title="Stationary state">stationary states</a>.

The time dependence of the quantum state and the operators can be placed according to unitary transformations on the operators and states. For any quantum state |Ψ⟩ and operator O, in the Schrödinger picture |Ψ(t)⟩ changes with time according to the Schrödinger equation while O is constant. In the Heisenberg picture it is the other way round, |Ψ⟩ is constant while O(t) evolves with time according to the Heisenberg equation of motion. The Dirac (or interaction) picture is intermediate, time dependence is places in both operators and states which evolve according to equations of motion. It is useful primarily in computing <a href="S-matrix" title="S-matrix">S-matrix elements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[38]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-relativistic_examples">Non-relativistic examples</h2></div>

The following are solutions to the Schrödinger equation for one non-relativistic spinless particle.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finite_potential_barrier">Finite potential barrier</h3></div>

One of the most prominent features of wave mechanics is the possibility for a particle to reach a location with a prohibitive (in classical mechanics) <a href="Potential_energy" title="Potential energy">force potential</a>. A common model is the "<a href="Potential_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Potential barrier">potential barrier</a>", the one-dimensional case has the potential

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle V(x)={\begin{cases}V_{0}&|x|<a\\0&|x|\geq a\end{cases}}}</annotation>

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and the steady-state solutions to the wave equation have the form (for some constants k, κ)

<math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Psi (x)={\begin{cases}A_{\mathrm {r} }e^{ikx}+A_{\mathrm {l} }e^{-ikx}&x<-a,\\B_{\mathrm {r} }e^{\kappa x}+B_{\mathrm {l} }e^{-\kappa x}&|x|\leq a,\\C_{\mathrm {r} }e^{ikx}+C_{\mathrm {l} }e^{-ikx}&x>a.\end{cases}}}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi (x)={\begin{cases}A_{\mathrm {r} }e^{ikx}+A_{\mathrm {l} }e^{-ikx}&x<-a,\\B_{\mathrm {r} }e^{\kappa x}+B_{\mathrm {l} }e^{-\kappa x}&|x|\leq a,\\C_{\mathrm {r} }e^{ikx}+C_{\mathrm {l} }e^{-ikx}&x>a.\end{cases}}}</annotation>

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Note that these wave functions are not normalized; see <a href="Scattering_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattering theory">scattering theory</a> for discussion.

The standard interpretation of this is as a stream of particles being fired at the step from the left (the direction of negative x): setting Ar = 1 corresponds to firing particles singly; the terms containing Ar and Cr signify motion to the right, while Al and Cl – to the left. Under this beam interpretation, put Cl = 0 since no particles are coming from the right. By applying the continuity of wave functions and their derivatives at the boundaries, it is hence possible to determine the constants above.

In a semiconductor <a href="Crystallite" title="Crystallite">crystallite</a> whose radius is smaller than the size of its <a href="Exciton" title="Exciton">exciton</a> <a href="Bohr_radius" title="Bohr radius">Bohr radius</a>, the excitons are squeezed, leading to <a href="Potential_well#Quantum_confinement" title="Potential well">quantum confinement</a>. The energy levels can then be modeled using the <a href="Particle_in_a_box" title="Particle in a box">particle in a box</a> model in which the energy of different states is dependent on the length of the box.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_harmonic_oscillator">Quantum harmonic oscillator</h3></div>

The wave functions for the <a href="Quantum_harmonic_oscillator" title="Quantum harmonic oscillator">quantum harmonic oscillator</a> can be expressed in terms of <a href="Hermite_polynomial" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermite polynomial">Hermite polynomials</a> Hn, they are

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi _{n}(x)={\sqrt {\frac {1}{2^{n}\,n!}}}\cdot \left({\frac {m\omega }{\pi \hbar }}\right)^{1/4}\cdot e^{-{\frac {m\omega x^{2}}{2\hbar }}}\cdot H_{n}{\left({\sqrt {\frac {m\omega }{\hbar }}}x\right)}}</annotation>

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where n = 0, 1, 2, ....

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrogen_atom">Hydrogen atom</h3></div>

The wave functions of an electron in a <a href="Hydrogen_atom#Mathematical_summary_of_eigenstates_of_hydrogen_atom" title="Hydrogen atom">Hydrogen atom</a> are expressed in terms of <a href="Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">spherical harmonics</a> and <a href="Laguerre_polynomial" class="mw-redirect" title="Laguerre polynomial">generalized Laguerre polynomials</a> (these are defined differently by different authors—see main article on them and the hydrogen atom).

It is convenient to use spherical coordinates, and the wave function can be separated into functions of each coordinate,<a href="#cite_note-44">[39]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi _{n\ell m}(r,\theta ,\phi )=R(r)\,\,Y_{\ell }^{m}\!(\theta ,\phi )}</annotation>

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where R are radial functions and Ym ℓ(θ, φ) are <a href="Spherical_harmonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherical harmonic">spherical harmonics</a> of degree ℓ and order m. This is the only atom for which the Schrödinger equation has been solved exactly. Multi-electron atoms require approximative methods. The family of solutions is:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2008162ff-45">[40]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Psi _{n\ell m}(r,\theta ,\phi )={\sqrt {{\left({\frac {2}{na_{0}}}\right)}^{3}{\frac {(n-\ell -1)!}{2n[(n+\ell )!]}}}}e^{-r/na_{0}}\left({\frac {2r}{na_{0}}}\right)^{\ell }L_{n-\ell -1}^{2\ell +1}\left({\frac {2r}{na_{0}}}\right)\cdot Y_{\ell }^{m}(\theta ,\phi )}</annotation>

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where a0 = 4πε0ħ2/mee2 is the <a href="Bohr_radius" title="Bohr radius">Bohr radius</a>,

L2ℓ + 1 n − ℓ − 1 are the <a href="Laguerre_polynomial" class="mw-redirect" title="Laguerre polynomial">generalized Laguerre polynomials</a> of degree n − ℓ − 1, n = 1, 2, ... is the <a href="Principal_quantum_number" title="Principal quantum number">principal quantum number</a>, ℓ = 0, 1, ..., n − 1 the <a href="Azimuthal_quantum_number" title="Azimuthal quantum number">azimuthal quantum number</a>, m = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, ..., ℓ − 1, ℓ the <a href="Magnetic_quantum_number" title="Magnetic quantum number">magnetic quantum number</a>. <a href="Hydrogen-like_atom" title="Hydrogen-like atom">Hydrogen-like atoms</a> have very similar solutions.

This solution does not take into account the spin of the electron.

In the figure of the hydrogen orbitals, the 19 sub-images are images of wave functions in position space (their norm squared). The wave functions represent the abstract state characterized by the triple of quantum numbers (n, ℓ, m), in the lower right of each image. These are the principal quantum number, the orbital angular momentum quantum number, and the magnetic quantum number. Together with one spin-projection quantum number of the electron, this is a complete set of observables.

The figure can serve to illustrate some further properties of the function spaces of wave functions.

<ul><li>In this case, the wave functions are square integrable. One can initially take the function space as the space of square integrable functions, usually denoted <a href="Lp_space" title="Lp space">L2</a>.</li>

<li>The displayed functions are solutions to the Schrödinger equation. Obviously, not every function in L2 satisfies the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom. The function space is thus a subspace of L2.</li>

<li>The displayed functions form part of a basis for the function space. To each triple (n, ℓ, m), there corresponds a basis wave function. If spin is taken into account, there are two basis functions for each triple. The function space thus has a <a href="Countable_basis" class="mw-redirect" title="Countable basis">countable basis</a>.</li>

<li>The basis functions are mutually <a href="Orthonormal" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthonormal">orthonormal</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wave_functions_and_function_spaces">Wave functions and function spaces</h2></div>

The concept of <a href="Function_space" title="Function space">function spaces</a> enters naturally in the discussion about wave functions. A function space is a set of functions, usually with some defining requirements on the functions (in the present case that they are <a href="Square_integrable" class="mw-redirect" title="Square integrable">square integrable</a>), sometimes with an <a href="Algebraic_structure" title="Algebraic structure">algebraic structure</a> on the set (in the present case a <a href="Vector_space" title="Vector space">vector space</a> structure with an <a href="Inner_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner product">inner product</a>), together with a <a href="Topological_space" title="Topological space">topology</a> on the set. The latter will sparsely be used here, it is only needed to obtain a precise definition of what it means for a subset of a function space to be <a href="Closed_set" title="Closed set">closed</a>. It will be concluded below that the function space of wave functions is a <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>. This observation is the foundation of the predominant mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vector_space_structure">Vector space structure</h3></div>

A wave function is an element of a function space partly characterized by the following concrete and abstract descriptions.

<ul><li>The Schrödinger equation is linear. This means that the solutions to it, wave functions, can be added and multiplied by scalars to form a new solution. The set of solutions to the Schrödinger equation is a vector space.</li>

<li>The superposition principle of quantum mechanics. If Ψ and Φ are two states in the abstract space of states of a quantum mechanical system, and a and b are any two complex numbers, then aΨ + bΦ is a valid state as well. (Whether the <a href="Null_vector" title="Null vector">null vector</a> counts as a valid state ("no system present") is a matter of definition. The null vector does not at any rate describe the <a href="Vacuum_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacuum state">vacuum state</a> in quantum field theory.) The set of allowable states is a vector space.</li></ul>

This similarity is of course not accidental. There are also a distinctions between the spaces to keep in mind.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Representations">Representations</h3></div>

Basic states are characterized by a set of quantum numbers. This is a set of eigenvalues of a maximal set of <a href="Canonical_commutation_relation" title="Canonical commutation relation">commuting</a> <a href="Observable" title="Observable">observables</a>. Physical observables are represented by linear operators, also called observables, on the vectors space. Maximality means that there can be added to the set no further algebraically independent observables that commute with the ones already present. A choice of such a set may be called a choice of representation.

<ul><li>It is a postulate of quantum mechanics that a physically observable quantity of a system, such as position, momentum, or spin, is represented by a linear <a href="Hermitian_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermitian operator">Hermitian operator</a> on the state space. The possible outcomes of measurement of the quantity are the <a href="Eigenvalues_and_eigenvectors" title="Eigenvalues and eigenvectors">eigenvalues</a> of the operator.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013-18">[18]</a> At a deeper level, most observables, perhaps all, arise as generators of <a href="Symmetry_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Symmetry in quantum mechanics">symmetries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2002-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[nb 6]</a></li>

<li>The physical interpretation is that such a set represents what can – in theory – simultaneously be measured with arbitrary precision. The <a href="Heisenberg_uncertainty_relation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heisenberg uncertainty relation">Heisenberg uncertainty relation</a> prohibits simultaneous exact measurements of two non-commuting observables.</li>

<li>The set is non-unique. It may for a one-particle system, for example, be position and spin z-projection, (x, Sz), or it may be momentum and spin y-projection, (p, Sy). In this case, the operator corresponding to position (a <a href="Multiplication_operator" title="Multiplication operator">multiplication operator</a> in the position representation) and the operator corresponding to momentum (a <a href="Differential_operator" title="Differential operator">differential operator</a> in the position representation) do not commute.</li>

<li>Once a representation is chosen, there is still arbitrariness. It remains to choose a coordinate system. This may, for example, correspond to a choice of x, y- and z-axis, or a choice of curvilinear coordinates as exemplified by the <a href="Spherical_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Spherical coordinates">spherical coordinates</a> used for the Hydrogen atomic wave functions. This final choice also fixes a basis in abstract Hilbert space. The basic states are labeled by the quantum numbers corresponding to the maximal set of commuting observables and an appropriate coordinate system.<a href="#cite_note-48">[nb 7]</a></li></ul>

The abstract states are "abstract" only in that an arbitrary choice necessary for a particular explicit description of it is not given. This is the same as saying that no choice of maximal set of commuting observables has been given. This is analogous to a vector space without a specified basis. Wave functions corresponding to a state are accordingly not unique. This non-uniqueness reflects the non-uniqueness in the choice of a maximal set of commuting observables. For one spin particle in one dimension, to a particular state there corresponds two wave functions, Ψ(x, Sz) and Ψ(p, Sy), both describing the same state.

<ul><li>For each choice of maximal commuting sets of observables for the abstract state space, there is a corresponding representation that is associated to a function space of wave functions.</li>

<li>Between all these different function spaces and the abstract state space, there are one-to-one correspondences (here disregarding normalization and unobservable phase factors), the common denominator here being a particular abstract state. The relationship between the momentum and position space wave functions, for instance, describing the same state is the <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a>.</li></ul>

Each choice of representation should be thought of as specifying a unique function space in which wave functions corresponding to that choice of representation lives. This distinction is best kept, even if one could argue that two such function spaces are mathematically equal, e.g. being the set of square integrable functions. One can then think of the function spaces as two distinct copies of that set.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inner_product">Inner product</h3></div>

There is an additional algebraic structure on the vector spaces of wave functions and the abstract state space.

<ul><li>Physically, different wave functions are interpreted to overlap to some degree. A system in a state Ψ that does not overlap with a state Φ cannot be found to be in the state Φ upon measurement. But if Φ1, Φ2, … overlap Ψ to some degree, there is a chance that measurement of a system described by Ψ will be found in states Φ1, Φ2, …. Also <a href="Selection_rule" title="Selection rule">selection rules</a> are observed apply. These are usually formulated in the preservation of some quantum numbers. This means that certain processes allowable from some perspectives (e.g. energy and momentum conservation) do not occur because the initial and final total wave functions do not overlap.</li>

<li>Mathematically, it turns out that solutions to the Schrödinger equation for particular potentials are orthogonal in some manner, this is usually described by an integral <math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \int \Psi _{m}^{*}\Psi _{n}w\,dV=\delta _{nm},}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \int \Psi _{m}^{*}\Psi _{n}w\,dV=\delta _{nm},}</annotation>

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</math> where m, n are (sets of) indices (quantum numbers) labeling different solutions, the strictly positive function w is called a weight function, and δmn is the <a href="Kronecker_delta" title="Kronecker delta">Kronecker delta</a>. The integration is taken over all of the relevant space.</li></ul>

This motivates the introduction of an <a href="Inner_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner product">inner product</a> on the vector space of abstract quantum states, compatible with the mathematical observations above when passing to a representation. It is denoted (Ψ, Φ), or in the <a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">Bra–ket notation</a> ⟨Ψ|Φ⟩. It yields a complex number. With the inner product, the function space is an <a href="Inner_product_space" title="Inner product space">inner product space</a>. The explicit appearance of the inner product (usually an integral or a sum of integrals) depends on the choice of representation, but the complex number (Ψ, Φ) does not. Much of the physical interpretation of quantum mechanics stems from the <a href="Born_rule" title="Born rule">Born rule</a>. It states that the probability p of finding upon measurement the state Φ given the system is in the state Ψ is

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p=|(\Phi ,\Psi )|^{2},}</annotation>

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where Φ and Ψ are assumed normalized. Consider a <a href="Scattering_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattering theory">scattering experiment</a>. In quantum field theory, if Φout describes a state in the "distant future" (an "out state") after interactions between scattering particles have ceased, and Ψin an "in state" in the "distant past", then the quantities (Φout, Ψin), with Φout and Ψin varying over a complete set of in states and out states respectively, is called the <a href="S-matrix" title="S-matrix">S-matrix</a> or scattering matrix. Knowledge of it is, effectively, having solved the theory at hand, at least as far as predictions go. Measurable quantities such as <a href="Decay_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Decay rate">decay rates</a> and <a href="Scattering_cross_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattering cross section">scattering cross sections</a> are calculable from the S-matrix.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2002Chapter_3-49">[42]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hilbert_space">Hilbert space</h3></div>

The above observations encapsulate the essence of the function spaces of which wave functions are elements. However, the description is not yet complete. There is a further technical requirement on the function space, that of <a href="Complete_metric_space" title="Complete metric space">completeness</a>, that allows one to take limits of sequences in the function space, and be ensured that, if the limit exists, it is an element of the function space. A complete inner product space is called a <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>. The property of completeness is crucial in advanced treatments and applications of quantum mechanics. For instance, the existence of <a href="Projection_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Projection operator">projection operators</a> or orthogonal projections relies on the completeness of the space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConway1990-50">[43]</a> These projection operators, in turn, are essential for the statement and proof of many useful theorems, e.g. the <a href="Spectral_theorem" title="Spectral theorem">spectral theorem</a>. It is not very important in introductory quantum mechanics, and technical details and links may be found in footnotes like the one that follows.<a href="#cite_note-51">[nb 8]</a>

The space L2 is a Hilbert space, with inner product presented later. The function space of the example of the figure is a subspace of L2. A subspace of a Hilbert space is a Hilbert space if it is closed.

In summary, the set of all possible normalizable wave functions for a system with a particular choice of basis, together with the null vector, constitute a Hilbert space.

Not all functions of interest are elements of some Hilbert space, say L2. The most glaring example is the set of functions e2πip · x⁄h. These are plane wave solutions of the Schrödinger equation for a <a href="Free_particle" title="Free particle">free particle</a> that are not normalizable, hence not in L2. But they are nonetheless fundamental for the description. One can, using them, express functions that are normalizable using <a href="Wave_packet" title="Wave packet">wave packets</a>. They are, in a sense, a basis (but not a Hilbert space basis, nor a <a href="Hamel_basis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamel basis">Hamel basis</a>) in which wave functions of interest can be expressed. There is also the artifact "normalization to a delta function" that is frequently employed for notational convenience, see further down. The delta functions themselves are not square integrable either.

The above description of the function space containing the wave functions is mostly mathematically motivated. The function spaces are, due to completeness, very large in a certain sense. Not all functions are realistic descriptions of any physical system. For instance, in the function space L2 one can find the function that takes on the value 0 for all rational numbers and -i for the irrationals in the interval [0, 1]. This is square integrable,<a href="#cite_note-52">[nb 9]</a>

but can hardly represent a physical state.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_Hilbert_spaces">Common Hilbert spaces</h3></div>

While the space of solutions as a whole is a Hilbert space there are many other Hilbert spaces that commonly occur as ingredients.

<ul><li>Square integrable complex valued functions on the interval [0, 2π]. The set {eint/2π, n ∈ Z} is a Hilbert space basis, i.e. a maximal orthonormal set.</li>

<li>The <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a> takes functions in the above space to elements of l2(Z), the space of square summable functions Z → C. The latter space is a Hilbert space and the Fourier transform is an isomorphism of Hilbert spaces.<a href="#cite_note-53">[nb 10]</a> Its basis is {ei, i ∈ Z} with ei(j) = δij, i, j ∈ Z.</li>

<li>The most basic example of spanning polynomials is in the space of square integrable functions on the interval [–1, 1] for which the <a href="Legendre_polynomials" title="Legendre polynomials">Legendre polynomials</a> is a Hilbert space basis (complete orthonormal set).</li>

<li>The square integrable functions on the <a href="Unit_sphere" title="Unit sphere">unit sphere</a> S2 is a Hilbert space. The basis functions in this case are the <a href="Spherical_harmonics" title="Spherical harmonics">spherical harmonics</a>. The Legendre polynomials are ingredients in the spherical harmonics. Most problems with rotational symmetry will have "the same" (known) solution with respect to that symmetry, so the original problem is reduced to a problem of lower dimensionality.</li>

<li>The <a href="Laguerre_polynomials" title="Laguerre polynomials">associated Laguerre polynomials</a> appear in the hydrogenic wave function problem after factoring out the spherical harmonics. These span the Hilbert space of square integrable functions on the semi-infinite interval [0, ∞).</li></ul>

More generally, one may consider a unified treatment of all second order polynomial solutions to the <a href="Sturm%E2%80%93Liouville_theory" title="Sturm–Liouville theory">Sturm–Liouville equations</a> in the setting of Hilbert space. These include the Legendre and Laguerre polynomials as well as <a href="Chebyshev_polynomials" title="Chebyshev polynomials">Chebyshev polynomials</a>, <a href="Jacobi_polynomials" title="Jacobi polynomials">Jacobi polynomials</a> and <a href="Hermite_polynomials" title="Hermite polynomials">Hermite polynomials</a>. All of these actually appear in physical problems, the latter ones in the <a href="Harmonic_oscillator_(quantum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Harmonic oscillator (quantum)">harmonic oscillator</a>, and what is otherwise a bewildering maze of properties of <a href="Special_functions" title="Special functions">special functions</a> becomes an organized body of facts. For this, see <a href="#CITEREFByronFuller1992">Byron & Fuller (1992</a>, Chapter 5).

There occurs also finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces. The space Cn is a Hilbert space of dimension n. The inner product is the standard inner product on these spaces. In it, the "spin part" of a single particle wave function resides.

<ul><li>In the non-relativistic description of an electron one has n = 2 and the total wave function is a solution of the <a href="Pauli_equation" title="Pauli equation">Pauli equation</a>.</li>

<li>In the corresponding relativistic treatment, n = 4 and the wave function solves the <a href="Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac equation</a>.</li></ul>

With more particles, the situations is more complicated. One has to employ <a href="Tensor_product" title="Tensor product">tensor products</a> and use representation theory of the symmetry groups involved (the <a href="Rotation_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotation group">rotation group</a> and the <a href="Lorentz_group" title="Lorentz group">Lorentz group</a> respectively) to extract from the tensor product the spaces in which the (total) spin wave functions reside. (Further problems arise in the relativistic case unless the particles are free.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreinerReinhardt2008-54">[44]</a> See the <a href="Bethe%E2%80%93Salpeter_equation" title="Bethe–Salpeter equation">Bethe–Salpeter equation</a>.) Corresponding remarks apply to the concept of <a href="Isospin" title="Isospin">isospin</a>, for which the symmetry group is <a href="SU(2)" class="mw-redirect" title="SU(2)">SU(2)</a>. The models of the nuclear forces of the sixties (still useful today, see <a href="Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear force</a>) used the symmetry group <a href="SU(3)" class="mw-redirect" title="SU(3)">SU(3)</a>. In this case, as well, the part of the wave functions corresponding to the inner symmetries reside in some Cn or subspaces of tensor products of such spaces.

<ul><li>In quantum field theory the underlying Hilbert space is <a href="Fock_space" title="Fock space">Fock space</a>. It is built from free single-particle states, i.e. wave functions when a representation is chosen, and can accommodate any finite, not necessarily constant in time, number of particles. The interesting (or rather the tractable) dynamics lies not in the wave functions but in the <a href="Field_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Field operator">field operators</a> that are operators acting on Fock space. Thus the <a href="Heisenberg_picture" title="Heisenberg picture">Heisenberg picture</a> is the most common choice (constant states, time varying operators).</li></ul>

Due to the infinite-dimensional nature of the system, the appropriate mathematical tools are objects of study in <a href="Functional_analysis" title="Functional analysis">functional analysis</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Simplified_description">Simplified description</h3></div>

Not all introductory textbooks take the long route and introduce the full Hilbert space machinery, but the focus is on the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation in position representation for certain standard potentials. The following constraints on the wave function are sometimes explicitly formulated for the calculations and physical interpretation to make sense:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisbergResnick1985-55">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERae2008-56">[46]</a>

<ul><li>The wave function must be <a href="Square_integrable" class="mw-redirect" title="Square integrable">square integrable</a>. This is motivated by the Copenhagen interpretation of the wave function as a probability amplitude.</li>

<li>It must be everywhere <a href="Continuous_function" title="Continuous function">continuous</a> and everywhere <a href="Continuously_differentiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuously differentiable">continuously differentiable</a>. This is motivated by the appearance of the Schrödinger equation for most physically reasonable potentials.</li></ul>

It is possible to relax these conditions somewhat for special purposes.<a href="#cite_note-57">[nb 11]</a>

If these requirements are not met, it is not possible to interpret the wave function as a probability amplitude.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974258-58">[47]</a> Note that exceptions can arise to the continuity of derivatives rule at points of infinite discontinuity of potential field. For example, in <a href="Particle_in_a_box" title="Particle in a box">particle in a box</a> where the derivative of wavefunction can be discontinuous at the boundary of the box where the potential is known to have infinite discontinuity.

This does not alter the structure of the Hilbert space that these particular wave functions inhabit, but the subspace of the square-integrable functions L2, which is a Hilbert space, satisfying the second requirement is not closed in L2, hence not a Hilbert space in itself.<a href="#cite_note-59">[nb 12]</a>

The functions that does not meet the requirements are still needed for both technical and practical reasons.<a href="#cite_note-60">[nb 13]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[nb 14]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="More_on_wave_functions_and_abstract_state_space">More on wave functions and abstract state space</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">Quantum state</a></div>

As has been demonstrated, the set of all possible wave functions in some representation for a system constitute an in general <a href="Dimension_(vector_space)" title="Dimension (vector space)">infinite-dimensional</a> Hilbert space. Due to the multiple possible choices of representation basis, these Hilbert spaces are not unique. One therefore talks about an abstract Hilbert space, state space, where the choice of representation and basis is left undetermined. Specifically, each state is represented as an abstract vector in state space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen-TannoudjiDiuLaloë2019103,_215-62">[48]</a> A quantum state |Ψ⟩ in any representation is generally expressed as a vector

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle =\sum _{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\int d^{m}\!{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\,\,\Psi _{t}({\boldsymbol {\alpha }},{\boldsymbol {\omega }})\,|{\boldsymbol {\alpha }},{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\rangle }</annotation>

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where

<ul><li>|α, ω⟩ the basis vectors of the chosen representation</li>

<li>dmω = dω1dω2...dωm a <a href="Differential_volume_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential volume element">differential volume element</a> in the continuous degrees of freedom</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Psi }}_{t}({\boldsymbol {\alpha }},{\boldsymbol {\omega }})}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./6956f4c4d64ae56f283f8907e377501e4bf2e45b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.184ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Psi }}_{t}({\boldsymbol {\alpha }},{\boldsymbol {\omega }})}" loading="lazy"> a component of the vector <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./6e77f6b1e903837c5765c9683da41dd93199621c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.36ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle }" loading="lazy">, called the wave function of the system</li>

<li>α = (α1, α2, ..., αn) dimensionless discrete quantum numbers</li>

<li>ω = (ω1, ω2, ..., ωm) continuous variables (not necessarily dimensionless)</li></ul>

These quantum numbers index the components of the state vector. More, all α are in an n-dimensional <a href="Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">set</a> A = A1 × A2 × ... × An where each Ai is the set of allowed values for αi; all ω are in an m-dimensional "volume" Ω ⊆ ℝm where Ω = Ω1 × Ω2 × ... × Ωm and each Ωi ⊆ R is the set of allowed values for ωi, a <a href="Subset" title="Subset">subset</a> of the <a href="Real_number" title="Real number">real numbers</a> R. For generality n and m are not necessarily equal.

Example:

<div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>For a single particle in 3d with spin s, neglecting other degrees of freedom, using Cartesian coordinates, we could take α = (sz) for the spin quantum number of the particle along the z direction, and ω = (x, y, z) for the particle's position coordinates. Here A = {−s, −s + 1, ..., s − 1, s} is the set of allowed spin quantum numbers and Ω = R3 is the set of all possible particle positions throughout 3d position space.</li><li>An alternative choice is α = (sy) for the spin quantum number along the y direction and ω = (px, py, pz) for the particle's momentum components. In this case A and Ω are the same as before.</li></ol></div>

The <a href="Probability_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Probability density">probability density</a> of finding the system at time <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho _{\alpha ,\omega }(t)=|\Psi ({\boldsymbol {\alpha }},{\boldsymbol {\omega }},t)|^{2}}</annotation>

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The probability of finding system with α in some or all possible discrete-variable configurations, D ⊆ A, and ω in some or all possible continuous-variable configurations, C ⊆ Ω, is the sum and integral over the density,<a href="#cite_note-63">[nb 15]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle P(t)=\sum _{{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\in D}\int _{C}d^{m}\!{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\,\,\rho _{\alpha ,\omega }(t)}</annotation>

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Since the sum of all probabilities must be 1, the normalization condition

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1=\sum _{{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\in A}\int _{\Omega }d^{m}\!{\boldsymbol {\omega }}\,\,\rho _{\alpha ,\omega }(t)}</annotation>

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must hold at all times during the evolution of the system.

The normalization condition requires ρ dmω to be dimensionless, by <a href="Dimensional_analysis" title="Dimensional analysis">dimensional analysis</a> Ψ must have the same units as (ω1ω2...ωm)−1/2.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ontology">Ontology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></div>

Whether the wave function exists in reality, and what it represents, are major questions in the <a href="Interpretation_of_quantum_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretation of quantum mechanics">interpretation of quantum mechanics</a>. Many famous physicists of a previous generation puzzled over this problem, such as <a href="Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>, <a href="Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>. Some advocate formulations or variants of the <a href="Copenhagen_interpretation" title="Copenhagen interpretation">Copenhagen interpretation</a> (e.g. Bohr, <a href="Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> and <a href="John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>) while others, such as <a href="John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> or <a href="Edwin_Thompson_Jaynes" title="Edwin Thompson Jaynes">Edwin Thompson Jaynes</a>, take the more classical approach<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaynes2003-64">[49]</a> and regard the wave function as representing information in the mind of the observer, i.e. a measure of our knowledge of reality. Some, including Schrödinger, <a href="David_Bohm" title="David Bohm">David Bohm</a> and <a href="Hugh_Everett_III" title="Hugh Everett III">Hugh Everett III</a> and others, argued that the wave function must have an objective, physical existence. Einstein thought that a complete description of physical reality should refer directly to physical space and time, as distinct from the wave function, which refers to an abstract mathematical space.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1998682-65">[50]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Boson" title="Boson">Boson</a></li>

<li><a href="De_Broglie%E2%80%93Bohm_theory" title="De Broglie–Bohm theory">De Broglie–Bohm theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">Double-slit experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Faraday_wave" title="Faraday wave">Faraday wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermion</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase-space_formulation" title="Phase-space formulation">Phase-space formulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a></li>

<li><a href="Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">Wave function collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Wave_packet" title="Wave packet">Wave packet</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Remarks">Remarks</h3></div>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> The functions are here assumed to be elements of <a href="Lp-space" class="mw-redirect" title="Lp-space">L2</a>, the space of square integrable functions. The elements of this space are more precisely equivalence classes of square integrable functions, two functions declared equivalent if they differ on a set of <a href="Lebesgue_measure" title="Lebesgue measure">Lebesgue measure</a> 0. This is necessary to obtain an inner product (that is, (Ψ, Ψ) = 0 ⇒ Ψ ≡ 0) as opposed to a semi-inner product. The integral is taken to be the <a href="Lebesgue_integral" title="Lebesgue integral">Lebesgue integral</a>. This is essential for completeness of the space, thus yielding a complete inner product space = Hilbert space.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> In quantum mechanics, only <a href="Hilbert_space#Separable_spaces" title="Hilbert space">separable Hilbert spaces</a> are considered, which using <a href="Zorn's_lemma" title="Zorn's lemma">Zorn's Lemma</a>, implies it admits a countably infinite <a href="Schauder_basis" title="Schauder basis">Schauder basis</a> rather than an orthonormal basis in the sense of linear algebra (<a href="Basis_(linear_algebra)#Hamel_basis" title="Basis (linear algebra)">Hamel basis</a>).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> As, technically, they are not in the Hilbert space. See <a href="Self-adjoint_operator#Spectral_theorem" title="Self-adjoint operator">Spectral theorem</a> for more details.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_32-1">b</a> Also called "Dirac orthonormality", according to <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, David J. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> The Fourier transform viewed as a unitary operator on the space L2 has eigenvalues ±1, ±i. The eigenvectors are "Hermite functions", i.e. <a href="Hermite_polynomials" title="Hermite polynomials">Hermite polynomials</a> multiplied by a <a href="Gaussian_function" title="Gaussian function">Gaussian function</a>. See <a href="#CITEREFByronFuller1992">Byron & Fuller (1992)</a> for a description of the Fourier transform as a unitary transformation. For eigenvalues and eigenvalues, refer to Problem 27 Ch. 9.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> For this statement to make sense, the observables need to be elements of a maximal commuting set. To see this, it is a simple matter to note that, for example, the momentum operator of the i'th particle in a n-particle system is not a generator of any symmetry in nature. On the other hand, the total momentum is a generator of a symmetry in nature; the translational symmetry.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> The resulting basis may or may not technically be a basis in the mathematical sense of Hilbert spaces. For instance, states of definite position and definite momentum are not square integrable. This may be overcome with the use of <a href="Wave_packet" title="Wave packet">wave packets</a> or by enclosing the system in a "box". See further remarks below.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> In technical terms, this is formulated the following way. The inner product yields a <a href="Normed_vector_space" title="Normed vector space">norm</a>. This norm, in turn, induces a <a href="Metric_space" title="Metric space">metric</a>. If this metric is <a href="Complete_metric" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete metric">complete</a>, then the aforementioned limits will be in the function space. The inner product space is then called complete. A complete inner product space is a <a href="Hilbert_space" title="Hilbert space">Hilbert space</a>. The abstract state space is always taken as a Hilbert space. The matching requirement for the function spaces is a natural one. The Hilbert space property of the abstract state space was originally extracted from the observation that the function spaces forming normalizable solutions to the Schrödinger equation are Hilbert spaces.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> As is explained in a later footnote, the integral must be taken to be the <a href="Lebesgue_integral" title="Lebesgue integral">Lebesgue integral</a>, the <a href="Riemann_integral" title="Riemann integral">Riemann integral</a> is not sufficient.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConway1990">Conway 1990</a>. This means that inner products, hence norms, are preserved and that the mapping is a bounded, hence continuous, linear bijection. The property of completeness is preserved as well. Thus this is the right concept of isomorphism in the <a href="Category_theory" title="Category theory">category</a> of Hilbert spaces.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> One such relaxation is that the wave function must belong to the <a href="Sobolev_space" title="Sobolev space">Sobolev space</a> W1,2. It means that it is differentiable in the sense of <a href="Distribution_(mathematics)" title="Distribution (mathematics)">distributions</a>, and its <a href="Gradient" title="Gradient">gradient</a> is <a href="Square-integrable" class="mw-redirect" title="Square-integrable">square-integrable</a>. This relaxation is necessary for potentials that are not functions but are distributions, such as the <a href="Dirac_delta_function" title="Dirac delta function">Dirac delta function</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> It is easy to visualize a sequence of functions meeting the requirement that converges to a discontinuous function. For this, modify an example given in <a href="Inner_product_space#Some_examples" title="Inner product space">Inner product space#Some examples</a>. This element though is an element of L2.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> For instance, in <a href="Perturbation_theory" title="Perturbation theory">perturbation theory</a> one may construct a sequence of functions approximating the true wave function. This sequence will be guaranteed to converge in a larger space, but without the assumption of a full-fledged Hilbert space, it will not be guaranteed that the convergence is to a function in the relevant space and hence solving the original problem.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Some functions not being square-integrable, like the plane-wave free particle solutions are necessary for the description as outlined in a previous note and also further below.

</li>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\equiv \sum _{\alpha _{1},\alpha _{2},\ldots ,\alpha _{n}}\equiv \sum _{\alpha _{1}}\sum _{\alpha _{2}}\cdots \sum _{\alpha _{n}}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math>is a multiple sum.

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

<li id="cite_note-Born_1926_A-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Born_1926_A_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Born_1926_A_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Born_1926_A_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorn1926a">Born 1926a</a>, translated in <a href="#CITEREFWheelerZurek1983">Wheeler & Zurek 1983</a> at pages 52–55.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Born_1926_B-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Born_1926_B_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Born_1926_B_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorn1926b">Born 1926b</a>, translated in <a href="#CITEREFLudwig1968">Ludwig 1968</a>, pp. 206–225. Also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ymambrini.com/My_World/History_files/Born_1.pdf">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201201173255/http://www.ymambrini.com/My_World/History_files/Born_1.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-12-01 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born, M.</a> (1954).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBorn1927354–357-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBorn1927354–357_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorn1927">Born 1927</a>, pp. 354–357.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeisenberg1958143-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeisenberg1958143_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeisenberg1958">Heisenberg 1958</a>, p. 143.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg, W.</a> (1927/1985/2009). Heisenberg is translated by <a href="#CITEREFCamilleri2009">Camilleri 2009</a>, p. 71, (from <a href="#CITEREFBohr1985">Bohr 1985</a>, p. 142).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurdoch198743-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurdoch198743_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMurdoch1987">Murdoch 1987</a>, p. 43.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Broglie196048-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Broglie196048_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Broglie1960">de Broglie 1960</a>, p. 48.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELandauLifshitz19776-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandauLifshitz19776_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLandauLifshitz1977">Landau & Lifshitz 1977</a>, p. 6.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewton200219–21-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewton200219–21_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewton2002">Newton 2002</a>, pp. 19–21.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spark.iop.org/planck">"Planck - A very short biography of Planck"</a>. spark.iop.org. <a href="Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a>. Retrieved 12 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs191/fa08/lectures/lecture8_fa08.pdf">C/CS Pys C191:Representations and Wave Functions 》 1. Planck-Einstein Relation E=hv</a> (PDF). EESC Instructional and Electronics Support, <a href="University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. 30 September 2008. p. 1. Retrieved 12 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1916">Einstein 1916</a>, pp. 47–62, and a nearly identical version <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1917">Einstein 1917</a>, pp. 121–128 translated in <a href="#CITEREFter_Haar1967">ter Haar 1967</a>, pp. 167–183.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Broglie1923507–510,_548,_630-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Broglie1923507–510,_548,_630_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFde_Broglie1923">de Broglie 1923</a>, pp. 507–510, 548, 630.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanle1977606–609-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanle1977606–609_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHanle1977">Hanle 1977</a>, pp. 606–609.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrödinger19261049–1070-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrödinger19261049–1070_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchrödinger1926">Schrödinger 1926</a>, pp. 1049–1070.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETiplerMoscaFreeman2008-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETiplerMoscaFreeman2008_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTiplerMoscaFreeman2008">Tipler, Mosca & Freeman 2008</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2013_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2013">Weinberg 2013</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungFreedman20081333-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoungFreedman20081333_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoungFreedman2008">Young & Freedman 2008</a>, p. 1333.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974_20-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtkins1974">Atkins 1974</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinShaw2008-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMartinShaw2008_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMartinShaw2008">Martin & Shaw 2008</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauli1927601–623.-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPauli1927601–623._22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPauli1927">Pauli 1927</a>, pp. 601–623..

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2002">Weinberg (2002)</a> takes the standpoint that quantum field theory appears the way it does because it is the only way to reconcile quantum mechanics with special relativity.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2002">Weinberg (2002)</a> See especially chapter 5, where some of these results are derived.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2002">Weinberg 2002</a> Chapter 4.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZwiebach2009-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZwiebach2009_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZwiebach2009">Zwiebach 2009</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEApplications_of_Quantum_Mechanics-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApplications_of_Quantum_Mechanics_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFApplications_of_Quantum_Mechanics">Applications of Quantum Mechanics</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths200494-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths200494_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGriffiths2004">Griffiths 2004</a>, p. 94.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShankar1994117-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShankar1994117_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShankar1994">Shankar 1994</a>, p. 117.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2004-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2004_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2004_34-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGriffiths2004">Griffiths 2004</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreves2006112-125-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreves2006112-125_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTreves2006">Treves 2006</a>, p. 112-125.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-37"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_37-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFB._Griffiths" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Robert_B._Griffiths" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert B. Griffiths">B. Griffiths, Robert</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quantum.phys.cmu.edu/QCQI/qitd114.pdf">"Hilbert Space Quantum Mechanics"</a> (PDF). p. 1.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELandsman2009-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandsman2009_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLandsman2009">Landsman 2009</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShankar1994378–379-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShankar1994378–379_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShankar1994">Shankar 1994</a>, pp. 378–379.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELandauLifshitz1977-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELandauLifshitz1977_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLandauLifshitz1977">Landau & Lifshitz 1977</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZettili2009463-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZettili2009463_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZettili2009">Zettili 2009</a>, p. 463.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSakuraiNapolitano2021" class="citation book cs1">Sakurai, Jun John; Napolitano, Jim (2021). Modern quantum mechanics (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–97. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-108-47322-4</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2002">Weinberg 2002</a> Chapter 3, Scattering matrix.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Physics for Scientists and Engineers – with Modern Physics (6th Edition), P. A. Tipler, G. Mosca, Freeman, 2008, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7167-8964-7</bdi>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2008162ff-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGriffiths2008162ff_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGriffiths2008">Griffiths 2008</a>, pp. 162ff.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2002-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2002_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2002">Weinberg 2002</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2002Chapter_3-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2002Chapter_3_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2002">Weinberg 2002</a>, Chapter 3.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConway1990-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConway1990_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConway1990">Conway 1990</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreinerReinhardt2008-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreinerReinhardt2008_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreinerReinhardt2008">Greiner & Reinhardt 2008</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEisbergResnick1985-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEisbergResnick1985_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEisbergResnick1985">Eisberg & Resnick 1985</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERae2008-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERae2008_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRae2008">Rae 2008</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974258-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins1974258_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAtkins1974">Atkins 1974</a>, p. 258.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen-TannoudjiDiuLaloë2019103,_215-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECohen-TannoudjiDiuLaloë2019103,_215_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCohen-TannoudjiDiuLaloë2019">Cohen-Tannoudji, Diu & Laloë 2019</a>, pp. 103, 215.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaynes2003-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaynes2003_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJaynes2003">Jaynes 2003</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEinstein1998682-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEinstein1998682_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEinstein1998">Einstein 1998</a>, p. 682.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFApplications_of_Quantum_Mechanics" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://appquantmech.quantumtinkerer.tudelft.nl/ch21/">"Applications of Quantum Mechanics"</a>. Lecture notes for the course AP3303. Department of Quantum Nanoscience studies at TU Delft. 2022.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAronsPeppard1965" class="citation journal cs1">Arons, A. B.; Peppard, M. B. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astro1.panet.utoledo.edu/~ljc/PE_eng.pdf">"Einstein's proposal of the photon concept: A translation of the Annalen der Physik paper of 1905"</a> (PDF). <a href="American_Journal_of_Physics" title="American Journal of Physics">American Journal of Physics</a>. 33 (5): 367. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965AmJPh..33..367A">1965AmJPh..33..367A</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1971542">10.1119/1.1971542</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFAtkins1974" class="citation book cs1">Atkins, P. W. (1974). Quanta: A Handbook of Concepts. Clarendon Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-855494-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBohr1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Bohr, N.</a> (1985). Kalckar, J. (ed.). Niels Bohr - Collected Works: Foundations of Quantum Physics I (1926 - 1932). Vol. 6. Amsterdam: North Holland. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-044453289-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBorn1926a" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M. (1926a). "Zur Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgange". Z. Phys. 37 (12): 863–867. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926ZPhy...37..863B">1926ZPhy...37..863B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01397477">10.1007/bf01397477</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119896026">119896026</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBorn1926b" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M. (1926b). "Quantenmechanik der Stoßvorgange". Z. Phys. 38 (11–12): 803–827. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926ZPhy...38..803B">1926ZPhy...38..803B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01397184">10.1007/bf01397184</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126244962">126244962</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBorn1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born, M.</a> (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F119354a0">"Physical aspects of quantum mechanics"</a>. Nature. 119 (2992): 354–357. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927Natur.119..354B">1927Natur.119..354B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F119354a0">10.1038/119354a0</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBorn1954" class="citation journal cs1">Born, M. (11 December 1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1954/born/lecture/">"The statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics"</a>. Nobel Lecture. 122 (3172). <a href="Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>: 675–9. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.122.3172.675">10.1126/science.122.3172.675</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17798674">17798674</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFde_Broglie1923" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Broglie, L. (1923). "Radiations—Ondes et quanta" [Radiation—Waves and quanta]. Comptes Rendus (in French). 177: 507–510, 548, 630.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Broglie/Broglie_pdf/CR1923_p507.pdf">Online copy (French)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.davis-inc.com/physics/broglie/broglie.shtml">Online copy (English)</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFde_Broglie1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">de Broglie, L.</a> (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nonlinearwavemec0000brog">Non-linear Wave Mechanics: a Causal Interpretation</a>. Amsterdam: Elsevier – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFByronFuller1992" class="citation book cs1">Byron, F. W.; <a href="Robert_W._Fuller" title="Robert W. Fuller">Fuller, R. W.</a> (1992) [First published 1969]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicsofcla00byro">Mathematics of Classical and Quantum Physics</a>. Dover Books on Physics (revised ed.). <a href="Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-486-67164-2</bdi> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCamilleri2009" class="citation book cs1">Camilleri, K. (2009). Heisenberg and the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics: the Physicist as Philosopher. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-88484-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCohen-TannoudjiDiuLaloë2019" class="citation book cs1">Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Laloë, Franck (2019). Quantum Mechanics, Volume 1. Weinheim, Germany: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-527-34553-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFConway1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_B._Conway" title="John B. Conway">Conway, J. B.</a> (1990). A Course in Functional Analysis. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 96. <a href="Springer_Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Verlag">Springer Verlag</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-387-97245-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDirac1939" class="citation journal cs1">Dirac, P. A. M. (1939). "A new notation for quantum mechanics". Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 35 (3): 416–418. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PCPS...35..416D">1939PCPS...35..416D</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305004100021162">10.1017/S0305004100021162</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121466183">121466183</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDirac1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac, P. A. M.</a> (1982). The principles of quantum mechanics. The international series on monographs on physics (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-852011-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1905" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein, A.</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220607">"Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"</a>. <a href="Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a> (in German). 17 (6): 132–148. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..132E">1905AnP...322..132E</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220607">10.1002/andp.19053220607</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1916" class="citation journal cs1">Einstein, A. (1916). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung". Mitteilungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft Zürich. 18: 47–62.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1917" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Einstein, A. (1917). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung". <a href="Physikalische_Zeitschrift" title="Physikalische Zeitschrift">Physikalische Zeitschrift</a> (in German). 18: 121–128. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1917PhyZ...18..121E">1917PhyZ...18..121E</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1998" class="citation book cs1">Einstein, A. (1998). <a href="Paul_Arthur_Schilpp" title="Paul Arthur Schilpp">Schilpp, P. A.</a> (ed.). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist. The Library of Living Philosophers. Vol. VII (3rd ed.). La Salle Publishing Company, Illinois: Open Court. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87548-133-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEisbergResnick1985" class="citation book cs1">Eisberg, Robert Martin; <a href="Robert_Resnick" title="Robert Resnick">Resnick, Robert</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantumphysicsof00eisb">Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei and Particles</a> (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-471-87373-0</bdi> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGreinerReinhardt2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Walter_Greiner" title="Walter Greiner">Greiner, W.</a>; Reinhardt, J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Kd3dBL8a64C&q=walter+greiner+Quantum+electrodynamics">Quantum Electrodynamics</a> (4th ed.). springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-354087560-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths2004" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, D. J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Essex England: Pearson Education. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-013111892-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGriffiths2008" class="citation book cs1">Griffiths, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w9Dz56myXm8C&pg=PA162">Introduction to elementary particles</a>. Wiley-VCH. pp. 162ff. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-527-40601-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFter_Haar1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Dirk_ter_Haar" title="Dirk ter Haar">ter Haar, D.</a> (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar">The Old Quantum Theory</a>. <a href="Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/167">167–183</a>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/66029628">66029628</a> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHanle1977" class="citation cs2">Hanle, P.A. (1977), "Erwin Schrodinger's Reaction to Louis de Broglie's Thesis on the Quantum Theory", Isis, 68 (4): 606–609, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F351880">10.1086/351880</a>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121913205">121913205</a></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHeisenberg1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg, W.</a> (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicsphilosoph0000heis">Physics and Philosophy: the Revolution in Modern Science</a>. New York: Harper & Row – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJaynes2003" class="citation book cs1">Jaynes, E. T. (2003). Larry, G. (ed.). Probability Theory: The Logic of Science. <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521 59271-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLandauLifshitz1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau, L.D.</a>; <a href="Evgeny_Lifshitz" title="Evgeny Lifshitz">Lifshitz, E. M.</a> (1977). Quantum Mechanics: Non-Relativistic Theory. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). <a href="Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-08-020940-1</bdi>.</cite> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/QuantumMechanics_104">Online copy</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLandsman2009" class="citation book cs1">Landsman, N. P. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.math.ru.nl/~landsman/Born.pdf">"Born Rule and its Interpretation"</a> (PDF). Compendium of Quantum Physics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 64–70. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-70626-7_20">10.1007/978-3-540-70626-7_20</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-70622-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLernerTrigg1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Rita_G._Lerner" title="Rita G. Lerner">Lerner, R.G.</a>; Trigg, G.L. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofph00lern">Encyclopaedia of Physics</a> (2nd ed.). VHC Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-89573-752-6</bdi> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLudwig1968" class="citation book cs1">Ludwig, G. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wavemechanics0000ludw">Wave Mechanics</a>. Oxford UK: Pergamon Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-08-203204-5</bdi>. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/66-30631">66-30631</a> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMartinShaw2008" class="citation book cs1">Martin, B.R.; Shaw, G. (2008). Particle Physics. Manchester Physics Series (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-03294-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMurdoch1987" class="citation book cs1">Murdoch, D. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nielsbohrsphilos0000murd">Niels Bohr's Philosophy of Physics</a>. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-33320-7</bdi> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNewton2002" class="citation book cs1">Newton, R.G. (2002). Quantum Physics: a Text for Graduate Student. New York: Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-387-95473-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPauli1927" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli, Wolfgang</a> (1927). "Zur Quantenmechanik des magnetischen Elektrons". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 43 (9–10): 601–623. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927ZPhy...43..601P">1927ZPhy...43..601P</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01397326">10.1007/bf01397326</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128228729">128228729</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPelegPniniZaarurHecht2010" class="citation book cs1">Peleg, Y.; Pnini, R.; Zaarur, E.; Hecht, E. (2010). Quantum mechanics. Schaum's outlines (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-07-162358-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRae2008" class="citation book cs1">Rae, A.I.M. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YDhHAQAAIAAJ&q=quantum+mechanics+Alastair+Rae+5th+edition">Quantum Mechanics</a>. Vol. 2 (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis Group. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5848-89700</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchrödinger1926" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger, E.</a> (1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081217040121/http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/Schroedinger/Schroedinger1926c.pdf">"An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules"</a> (PDF). <a href="Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. 28 (6): 1049–1070. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926PhRv...28.1049S">1926PhRv...28.1049S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.28.1049">10.1103/PhysRev.28.1049</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.tiscali.nl/physis/HistoricPaper/Schroedinger/Schroedinger1926c.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 December 2008.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFShankar1994" class="citation book cs1">Shankar, R. (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-030644790-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTiplerMoscaFreeman2008" class="citation book cs1">Tipler, P. A.; Mosca, G.; Freeman (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers – with Modern Physics (6th ed.). W. H. Freeman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7167-8964-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTreves2006" class="citation book cs1">Treves, Francois (2006). Topological Vector Spaces, Distributions and Kernels. Mineola, NY: Courier Corporation. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-486-45352-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2002" class="citation cs2">Weinberg, S. (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev">The Quantum Theory of Fields</a>, vol. 1, Cambridge University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-55001-7</bdi> – via <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2013" class="citation cs2"><a href="Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg, S.</a> (2013), Lectures in Quantum Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-02872-2</bdi></cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWheelerZurek1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">Wheeler, J.A.</a>; <a href="Wojciech_H._Zurek" title="Wojciech H. Zurek">Zurek, W.H.</a> (1983). Quantum Theory and Measurement. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYoungFreedman2008" class="citation book cs1">Young, H. D.; Freedman, R. A. (2008). Pearson (ed.). Sears' and Zemansky's University Physics (12th ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-321-50130-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZettili2009" class="citation book cs1">Zettili, N. (2009). Quantum Mechanics: Concepts and Applications (2nd ed.). Wiley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-02679-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZwiebach2009" class="citation book cs1">Zwiebach, Barton (2009). A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-88032-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation book cs1">Kim, Yong-Ki (2 September 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722141558/http://amods.kaeri.re.kr/mcdf/lectnote.pdf">Practical Atomic Physics</a> (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. pp. 1 (55 s). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amods.kaeri.re.kr/mcdf/lectnote.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 July 2011.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Polkinghorne" title="John Polkinghorne">Polkinghorne, John</a> (2002). Quantum Theory, A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-280252-1</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web1.eng.famu.fsu.edu/~dommelen/quantum/">Quantum Mechanics for Engineers</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyu.edu/classes/tuckerman/adv.chem/lectures/lecture_9/node2.html">Spin wave functions NYU</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/752.mf1i.spring03/IdenticalParticlesRevisited.htm">Identical Particles Revisited, Michael Fowler</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vergil.chemistry.gatech.edu/notes/quantrev/node34.html">The Nature of Many-Electron Wavefunctions</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.edx.org/courses/BerkeleyX/CS191x/2013_Spring/about">Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Computation at BerkeleyX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513055801/https://www.edx.org/courses/BerkeleyX/CS191x/2013_Spring/about">Archived</a> 2013-05-13 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astro1.panet.utoledo.edu/~ljc/einstein_ab.pdf">Einstein, The quantum theory of radiation</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Quantum_mechanics328" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Quantum_mechanics328" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">Introduction</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_quantum_mechanics" title="History of quantum mechanics">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Timeline of quantum mechanics">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_quantum_theory" title="Old quantum theory">Old quantum theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics" title="Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics">Glossary</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamentals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation" title="Bra–ket notation">Bra–ket notation</a></li>

<li><a href="Complementarity_(physics)" title="Complementarity (physics)"> Complementarity</a></li>

<li><a href="Density_matrix" title="Density matrix">Density matrix</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_level" title="Energy level">Energy level</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ground_state" title="Ground state">Ground state</a></li>

<li><a href="Excited_state" title="Excited state">Excited state</a></li>

<li><a href="Degenerate_energy_levels" title="Degenerate energy levels">Degenerate levels</a></li>

<li><a href="Zero-point_energy" title="Zero-point energy">Zero-point energy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">Entanglement</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)">Hamiltonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Wave_interference" title="Wave interference">Interference</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_decoherence" title="Quantum decoherence">Decoherence</a></li>

<li><a href="Measurement_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Measurement in quantum mechanics">Measurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_nonlocality" title="Quantum nonlocality">Nonlocality</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_state" title="Quantum state">Quantum state</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_superposition" title="Quantum superposition">Superposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_tunnelling" title="Quantum tunnelling">Tunnelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Scattering#Theory" title="Scattering">Scattering theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Symmetry_in_quantum_mechanics" title="Symmetry in quantum mechanics">Symmetry in quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Wave_function_collapse" title="Wave function collapse">Collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">Wave–particle duality</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formulations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics">Formulations</a></li>

<li><a href="Heisenberg_picture" title="Heisenberg picture">Heisenberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Interaction_picture" title="Interaction picture">Interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Matrix_mechanics" title="Matrix mechanics">Matrix mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_picture" title="Schrödinger picture">Schrödinger</a></li>

<li><a href="Path_integral_formulation" title="Path integral formulation">Path integral formulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase-space_formulation" title="Phase-space formulation">Phase space</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation" title="Klein–Gordon equation">Klein–Gordon</a></li>

<li><a href="Dirac_equation" title="Dirac equation">Dirac</a></li>

<li><a href="Majorana_equation" title="Majorana equation">Majorana</a></li>

<li><a href="Rarita%E2%80%93Schwinger_equation" title="Rarita–Schwinger equation">Rarita–Schwinger</a></li>

<li><a href="Pauli_equation" title="Pauli equation">Pauli</a></li>

<li><a href="Rydberg_formula" title="Rydberg formula">Rydberg</a></li>

<li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_Bayesianism" title="Quantum Bayesianism">Bayesian</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness_causes_collapse" title="Consciousness causes collapse">Consciousness causes collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Consistent_histories" title="Consistent histories">Consistent histories</a></li>

<li><a href="Copenhagen_interpretation" title="Copenhagen interpretation">Copenhagen</a></li>

<li><a href="De_Broglie%E2%80%93Bohm_theory" title="De Broglie–Bohm theory">de Broglie–Bohm</a></li>

<li><a href="Ensemble_interpretation" title="Ensemble interpretation">Ensemble</a></li>

<li><a href="Hidden-variable_theory" title="Hidden-variable theory">Hidden-variable</a>

<ul><li><a href="Local_hidden-variable_theory" title="Local hidden-variable theory">Local</a>

<ul><li><a href="Superdeterminism" title="Superdeterminism">Superdeterminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Many-worlds_interpretation" title="Many-worlds interpretation">Many-worlds</a></li>

<li><a href="Objective-collapse_theory" title="Objective-collapse theory">Objective collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_logic" title="Quantum logic">Quantum logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_quantum_mechanics" title="Relational quantum mechanics">Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactional_interpretation" title="Transactional interpretation">Transactional</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experiments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Davisson%E2%80%93Germer_experiment" title="Davisson–Germer experiment">Davisson–Germer</a></li>

<li><a href="Delayed-choice_quantum_eraser" title="Delayed-choice quantum eraser">Delayed-choice quantum eraser</a></li>

<li><a href="Double-slit_experiment" title="Double-slit experiment">Double-slit</a></li>

<li><a href="Franck%E2%80%93Hertz_experiment" title="Franck–Hertz experiment">Franck–Hertz</a></li>

<li><a href="Mach%E2%80%93Zehnder_interferometer" title="Mach–Zehnder interferometer">Mach–Zehnder interferometer</a></li>

<li><a href="Elitzur%E2%80%93Vaidman_bomb_tester" title="Elitzur–Vaidman bomb tester">Elitzur–Vaidman</a></li>

<li><a href="Popper's_experiment" title="Popper's experiment">Popper</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_eraser_experiment" title="Quantum eraser experiment">Quantum eraser</a></li>

<li><a href="Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment" title="Stern–Gerlach experiment">Stern–Gerlach</a></li>

<li><a href="Wheeler's_delayed-choice_experiment" title="Wheeler's delayed-choice experiment">Wheeler's delayed choice</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_chaos" title="Quantum chaos">Quantum chaos</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_differential_calculus" title="Quantum differential calculus">Quantum differential calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_dynamics" title="Quantum dynamics">Quantum dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_geometry" title="Quantum geometry">Quantum geometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Measurement_problem" title="Measurement problem">Quantum measurement problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_mind" title="Quantum mind">Quantum mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_stochastic_calculus" title="Quantum stochastic calculus">Quantum stochastic calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_spacetime" title="Quantum spacetime">Quantum spacetime</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Quantum_engineering" title="Quantum engineering">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">Quantum algorithms</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_amplifier" title="Quantum amplifier">Quantum amplifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_bus" title="Quantum bus">Quantum bus</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_cellular_automaton" title="Quantum cellular automaton">Quantum cellular automata</a>

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_finite_automaton" title="Quantum finite automaton">Quantum finite automata</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_channel" title="Quantum channel">Quantum channel</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_circuit" title="Quantum circuit">Quantum circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_complexity_theory" title="Quantum complexity theory">Quantum complexity theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_cryptography" title="Quantum cryptography">Quantum cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_optics#Quantum_electronics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum electronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_error_correction" title="Quantum error correction">Quantum error correction</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_imaging" title="Quantum imaging">Quantum imaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_image_processing" title="Quantum image processing">Quantum image processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_information" title="Quantum information">Quantum information</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">Quantum key distribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_logic" title="Quantum logic">Quantum logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_logic_gate" title="Quantum logic gate">Quantum logic gates</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_machine" title="Quantum machine">Quantum machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_machine_learning" title="Quantum machine learning">Quantum machine learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_metamaterial" title="Quantum metamaterial">Quantum metamaterial</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_metrology" title="Quantum metrology">Quantum metrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_network" title="Quantum network">Quantum network</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_neural_network" title="Quantum neural network">Quantum neural network</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_optics" title="Quantum optics">Quantum optics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_sensor" title="Quantum sensor">Quantum sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_simulator" title="Quantum simulator">Quantum simulator</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_teleportation" title="Quantum teleportation">Quantum teleportation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extensions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">Quantum fluctuation</a></li>

<li><a href="Casimir_effect" title="Casimir effect">Casimir effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_statistical_mechanics" title="Quantum statistical mechanics">Quantum statistical mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_quantum_field_theory" title="History of quantum field theory">History</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_quantum_mechanics" title="Relativistic quantum mechanics">Relativistic quantum mechanics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger's_cat" title="Schrödinger's cat">Schrödinger's cat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Schr%C3%B6dinger's_cat_in_popular_culture" title="Schrödinger's cat in popular culture">in popular culture</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Wigner's_friend" title="Wigner's friend">Wigner's friend</a></li>

<li><a href="Einstein%E2%80%93Podolsky%E2%80%93Rosen_paradox" title="Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox">EPR paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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